Chapter 13: HUMAN HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

Authors: Bryan Tladi(1), Titus Baloyi(2), Adelheid Schreiber-Kaya,(3), Mokgadi Mathekgana(4), Stuart Mangold(4), Theuns de Klerk(5) and Frank Winde(6)

1.Bohlweki Enviromental (Pty)Ltd, Midrand, Johannesburg
2.Hlongwane Sustainability Focus, Johannesburg
3.North West Department of Health, Mafikeng
4.North West Dept.Agriculture Conservation and Environment, Mafikeng
5.Dept Geography University of North West, Mafikeng
6.Dept. Geography and Environmental Studies, University Of Potchefstroom

CONTENTS

Housing

Nutrition and Food Security

Waste Management

Water Supply and Sanitation

Toxicity in the Environment

Radiation and Radioactivity in the Environment

References

Maps:

General waste volumes and landfill sites (Map 57)
Hazardous waste volumes generated per annum (Map 58)
North West Province water supply authorities (Map 59)
Potential radioactivity in the environment (Map 60)

13.1 Housing

13.1.1 Introduction

Housing can be defined as a variety of processes through which habitat, stable and sustainable public and private residential environments are created for variable households and communities. The building of a house is the culmination of many planning processes and legislative requirements that need to be adhered to before the actual housing is constructed. This includes the undertaking of processes such as Environmental Scoping Study and Environmental Impact Assessment. Environmentally sound housing implies housing, which, besides technical and affordability requirements, also meets the need for environmental efficiency (Environmentally Sound Low-cost Housing, 2001).
The National Housing Programme (Department of Housing: Environmental Implementation Plan, 2001), recognises that adequate shelter needs to provide: adequate privacy; adequate space; physical accessibility; adequate security; security of tenure; structural stability and durability; adequate lighting; heating and ventilation; adequate basic infrastructure such as water supply, sanitation, and waste-management facilities; sustainable environmental quality and health related factors, and adequate and accessible location with regard to work and basic facilities. All of these elements need to be available at an affordable cost.

13.1.2 Driving forces

The introduction of the Housing Subsidy Scheme in 1994 was the primary assistance measure of the National Housing Programme. Housing subsidies are one of the Government's main instruments to address the legacy of poverty and inequality. This is because housing is vital to the socio-economic well-being of the nation. It is a key sector of the national economy, is a vital part of integrated development planning, is a product of human endeavor and enterprise, and it fulfils basic human needs. Households with an income of R3 500 or less per month, who have not owned property previously, and who satisfy a range of other criteria, can apply for a subsidy and use it to get housing, either to own or to rent.
Most parts of regions in the North West Province are occupied by informal settlements. This is because of the Province's high rate of unemployment, poverty and lack of access to credit facilities. Most of these houses have no electricity, water or proper sanitation facilities. Efforts are being made to change this situation, and it is estimated that since 1994, three million, six-hundred and twenty six (3 000 626) households in the North West Province have been electrified.
The main driving force for housing in the North West Province is the growth in population (see Chapter 3). The Province has a historical housing backlog , which exerts pressure on the current housing stock in relation to what is currently being provided.

13.1.3 Pressures

Approximately 30% of households in the North West Province live in substandard dwellings. Due to the high rate of unemployment and poverty in most parts of rural areas in the Province, high percentages of rural populations in the North West Province are accommodated in poorly serviced informal houses/settlements. The situation found in these areas relates mainly to the provision of basic services, such as water and sanitation. The challenges facing the provincial housing authorities relate mainly to providing adequate housing, especially to the vulnerable sectors of the community (Figure 13.1.1).

Figure 13.1.1: Percent of households living in sub-standard conditions in the North West Province by district council in 1996 (Source: Living in the North West, 2001).

Further challenges facing the province in terms of housing provision include securing adequate land. Environmental considerations need to be built into all land developments to ensure that marginal land is not put at risk. Infrastructure requirements, which form part of housing provision such as water, waste and road also pose a challenge to the province in dealing with housing backlog.

13.1.4 State

In 1994 the North West Province had a housing backlog estimated at 110 000, with an annual increase of 13 646 in the demand for new houses. The backlog had increased to 146 000 in the year 2000 despite the 50 576 houses built (A Re Ageng, 2001). From 1997 to date, 124 469 housing subsidies to the value of R1,7 billion have been approved and 86 436 serviced sites have been delivered in the province.
North West Provincial Government Housing Department had a capital expenditure of R9 908 000 on formal residential buildings by the public sector for the 1998 period. This figure is the second lowest in comparison to the other provinces, with Mpumalanga Province's budget being the lowest at R8 527 000. The approved formal residential building plans financed by the private sector in the North West Province is R524 245 for the 1998 period (Table 13.1.1).
The number of households residing in backyard and informal dwellings are generally an indication of the housing need within a particular area. The occurrence of people residing in informal dwellings is mainly concentrated in the urban centres of the province. The highest concentration of these types of structures are located in the Southern District Council (accounting for 29% of housing stock) and the Bojanala Platinum District (18%).
It is estimated that approved formal residential building plans financed by the private sectors in the North West Province is 7 339, with a total of 122 551 in the whole of South Africa. A total of 6 659 dwelling-houses in the North West Province out of a total of 81 359 in South Africa have been completed by the private sector (Table 13.1.2). Information on public sector spending on housing in the Province was not available at the time of compiling this report.
A significant portion of households in the North West Province resides in housing structures on separate stands. The figures range between 48% in the Southern District Council to as high as 74% in the Central District council. In large parts of the rural areas, the type of housing can be classified as traditional dwellings. Low investment in the rural areas where the highest poverty gap is found, is of concern. The ability to repay loans, fees and tariffs by the poor and unemployed, remains a big challenge for the province.

Table 13.1.1: Housing indicators by Province, 1998 (Rand value in thousands).

	Eastern Cape	FreeState	Gauteng	KwaZulu-Natal	Mpuma-langa	Northern Cape	Northern Province	North West	Western Cape	South Africa
Approved formal residential building plans financed by the private sector	623 077	570 642	3 200 887	1 00 328	570 589	1 354 662	457 359	524 245	2 633 404	10 935 193
Expected capital expenditure by the public sector on informal residential buildings	141 704	51 365	358 495	127 787	8 527	50 721	23 478	9 908	228 164	1 000 149
Formal residential buildings completed by the private sector:
Dwelling-houses	357 792	321 943	1 572 508	479 430	262 610	110 747	208 675	150 802	1 269 788	4 734 295
Flats	9 394	10 902	98 323	36 849	1 673	-	-	6 587	177 536	341 264
Townhouses	38 153	22 733	584 008	225 771	32 165	4 047	15 305	45 574	265 294	1 233 050
Other	18 902	762	142 740	354 933	20 942	950	11 198	-	193 792	744 219
Total	424 241	356 349	2 397 579	1 096 983	317 390	115 744	235 178	202 963	1 906 410	7 052 828

Table 13.1.2: Housing indicators by Province, 1998 (numbers of houses built and building plans approved).

	Eastern Cape	FreeState	Gauteng	KwaZulu-Natal	Mpuma-langa	Northern Cape	Northern Province	North West	Western Cape	South Africa
Approved formal residential building plans financed by the private sector	16 732	18 871	31 720	8 712	9 660	2 871	5 353	7 339	21 293	122 551
Formal residential buildings completed by the private sector:
Dwelling-houses	8 460	13 992	17 240	5 349	5 123	3 480	9 374	6 659	11 682	81 359
Flats	78	111	935	188	15	-	-	161	2 287	3 775
Townhouses	420	184	4 728	1 628	314	31	105	448	1 653	9 511
Other	15	3	10	104	16	4	11	-	63	226
Total	8 973	14 290	22 913	7 269	5 468	3 515	9 490	7 268	15 685	94 871

13.1.5 Impact

The National Housing Programme impacts on the environment through being one of the largest consumers of land resources. Informal settlements have a major negative impact on the environment. Because these settlements are unplanned, they are often situated on marginal land and impact negatively on sensitive environments. The negative impacts of informal settlements on the environment are significantly more than the impact caused by formal settlements, as the former are not subjected to proper planning, evaluation and environmental impact assessment. Environmental impacts typically resulting from informal settlements include, amongst others, dust pollution from unpaved roads and air pollution from burning of coal for domestic purposes, erosion and siltation and non-point source pollution of rivers and dams.
In assessing the Housing Programme in terms of its social, economic and environmental impact, the following facts should be considered. Since its inception in 1994, the National Housing Subsidy Programme has provided housing and obtains secure tenure and access to improved sanitation and water to people who would have been relegated to informal settlements. Through its implementation, the housing subsidy programme has also created an enabling environment conducive for the creation of much-needed jobs. It has made a significant contribution to sustainable development in social and economic terms. It has, however, contributed to urban sprawl, the inefficient use of water and energy, the loss of topsoil and the inappropriate provision of services in the past.

13.1.6 Responses

The National Housing Subsidies Programme, since its inception in 1994, has approved 1 113 573 housing subsidies, constructed 983 943 housing units, costing more than R12 billion. Secure tenure and access to improved sanitation and water for more than 4,2 million people who were previously living in informal settlements.

13.1.7 Outcomes

Apart from the successful subsidy allocated figures, evidence suggests that the housing subsidy scheme has been fairly effective. Firstly, most subsidies have gone to the lowest income households. Over 92% of subsidies have been given to households earning less than R1 500 per month. Secondly about 39% of subsidies were allocated to female-headed households.
In considering the impact of the national housing project, it was also observed that these funds have been provided to areas where a high number of formal houses that are largely serviced in terms of telecommunications, electricity, water and sanitation already exist. It was also found that spending on housing programmes is greatest for those areas where the poverty gap is relatively low.
The relatively low investment in the rural areas where the highest poverty gap is found, is of concern. This could ultimately result in these rural populations remaining in a state of poverty. Repayment of outstanding loans, fees and tariffs by the poor, as well as unemployment, has also become a major sustainability issue to be resolved. Some measures introduced to make the housing development process more sustainable include the stabilising of the housing environment by the introduction of the Masakhane Campaign, the Mortgage Indemnity Fund (MIF), Servcon Housing Solutions, Thubelisha ("new opportunity") Homes and the National Home Builders Registration Council (NHBRC).

13.1.8 Linkages

This section has links with:

Chapter 3 on the social environment;
Chapter 4 on economics;
Chapter 6.1 on settlement patterns;
Chapter 7.5 on infrastructure;
Chapter 7.6 on energy, and
Chapter 13.4 on water supply and sanitation.

13.1.9 Data issues and indicators

Data issues - Housing data for the North West Province is not very accessible, thus mostly national parameters have been referred to in the report. The data on housing is very important for the social strategic planning and this calls for a lot of improvement in this regard. The national Department of Housing (DOH) has developed the Housing and Urbanisation Information System (HUIS), a computer-based data warehouse, which, inter alia, includes a range of human settlement indicators. These were developed in accordance with the United Nations Centre for Human Settlement's indicators programme using data from the October Household Survey.
As part of the Environmental Implementation Plan process, special attention will be paid to the development of indicators that reflect the state of the environment in human settlement. Among the current available indicators on HUIS, the following two are considered most important from an environmental aspect:

Household connection levels to water, electricity, sewage and telephone, and
House by formal and informal dwellings.

Indicators - The Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism is in the process of developing the National Core Set of Environmental Indicators, which will define clear parameters of evaluation. Once this process is complete, it will provide proper guidelines for processes with an environmental bearing such as housing. The following indicators are part of the framework to develop the core set of environmental indicators.

Urban and rural population distribution;
Crude birth rate and crude death rates;
Population growth rates;
Population change;
Rural-urban migration;
Household size;
Income inequality;
Poverty rate by population;
Dwelling types in South Africa;
Access to public health care facilities;
Provincial distribution of health personnel;
Incidence of selected notifiable diseases;
HIV infection attending ante-natal clinics by age group;
Attendance level of educational institutions of people aged 5-29;
Percentage of population older than 20 years per level of education;
Unemployment by race, and
Percentage of households using different fuels in rural areas.

Not all these indictors can be linked to this particular section, but inter-relationships can be traced to a substantial number of these.

13.1.10 Conclusion and recommendations

Because formal urban settlements are planned and managed, they hold the promise for human development and the protection of the world's natural resources through their ability to support large numbers of people while limiting their impacts on the natural environments. This can be achieved by striving for the following goals:

Creating an enabling environment for economic and social development and environmental protection;
Promoting education and training on environmentally sound technologies, material and products;
Protecting and maintaining the historic, cultural and natural heritage;
Promoting optimal use of productive land and protecting fragile ecosystems;
Promoting integrated water use planning;
Proper infrastructure;
Adequate services e.g. sewage and waste removal.

The Province is faced with very strong challenges in ensuring that it deals with the current housing backlog speedily. Due to the fact that the existing backlog has historical connotations, targeting of the priority beneficiaries needs to be undertaken with sensitivity. Cognisance should be taken of the fact that the majority of the population falls within an economic bracket that does not have access to credit, and is trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty.
Housing provision is one of the economic vehicles through which economic activities in the Province for the marginalised communities can be catalysed. The inclusion of SMMEs in the construction sector holds hope for a vast majority of the unemployed.

13.2 Nutrition and Food Security

13.2.1 Introduction

Nutrition and food security are key aspects in the well-being of a society. These aspects are directly linked to the society's quality of life, which is determined by the complex inter-relationships of social, economic, political and other processes. Nutrition is one of the basic necessities in the normal development of human beings. The improper administering of this function has negative connotations to normal human development processes. The underlying causes of malnutrition include: households inability to access food needed for a healthy active life; poor care of members of the household, particularly mothers and children; an unhealthy environment; and poor access to clean water. The socio-economic situation in the North West Province shows a marked deterioration in the period 1991 to 1999. Two main indicators of change in the economy of the Province are the poverty gap and unemployment rate. These are discussed in Chapter 3.

13.2.2 Driving forces

Poverty and unemployment are two primary factors which contribute towards sub-standard living conditions, and this is more prevalent in the rural parts, the third highest in relation to the other Provinces. Poverty distribution in the North West Province affects 62% of the total population, as opposed to 29% in the Western Cape and 17% in Gauteng. Poverty is a feature of households that are unable to command sufficient resources to satisfy a socially acceptable minimum standard of living. Some of these conditions include food insecurity, malnutrition and lack of access to other basic services, such as water and sanitation.

13.2.3 Pressures

The pressures related to food insecurity and malnutrition include among others, a reduced quality of life, high mortality rates especially with infants and reduced life expectancy. This becomes evident in the vulnerable communities where children and women become victims of negative circumstances. Opportunistic diseases thrive under conditions whereby the population is receiving sub-optimal nutritional levels. Access to land for the rural poor, remains a challenge for the province. With access to land, the rural poor can be afforded the ability to engage in agricultural activities which can uplift their food security levels. The risk that the province runs starts with the rural poor who attempt to eke a living on marginal land. This leads to the destruction of the same environment that we are striving to protect.

13.2.4 State

It is estimated that in the rural areas of South Africa, one in three children display marginal vitamin A status, 20% are anaemic and 10% are iron-deficient. The underlying causes of such unfavourable conditions are related to:

Food insecurity;
Inadequate maternal and childcare;
Inadequate access to basic health services, and
Lack of access to a healthy environment.

The South African Vitamin A Consultative Group (SAVACG) reported the athropometric status of the children between the ages of 6 months and 6 six years in the North West Province as follows:

Moderate to severe wasting	4,5%
Moderate to severe underweight	13,2%
Moderate to severe stunting	24,7%

Prevalence in Iron Deficiency:

Percentage Anaemic:	Hb<11g/dl	24,5%
%Iron depleted:	Ferritin<12ug/dl	8,1%
Iron deficiency anaemia:	%HB<11 & Ferritin<12	5,0%

Prevalence of Vitamin A deficiency in children of between 6 months and 6 years:

% Serum Retinol 10ug/dl	3,4%
% Serum Retinol 20ug/dl	32,0%
Mean Serum Retinol (ug/dl)	24,4%
Night blindness	12,7%
Bitit spot	0,4%

The Nutrition Sub-Directorate in the North West Province recognises the fact that there is a high level of poverty and, therefore, malnutrition in the Province. This is mainly the result of a below average socio-economic status of the Province. Due to the nutritional circumstances in the North West Province, the Sub-Directorate undertook its efforts to cover the age group 0-12 years as the primary target population for the improvements and maintenance of optimal nutritional status.

13.2.5 Impact

Food insecurity and malnutrition have a negative impact on the environment from both a social and physical perspective. Communities resort to unsustainable use of natural resources to make a livelihood when faced with food insecurity and malnutrition problems. Environmental considerations become peripheral in these circumstances. Agricultural methods which have a negative impact on the environment, end up being utilised as a means towards subsistence (e.g. use of fertilisers and genetically-modified organisms, (see Chapter 7). The Province has encountered a negative social impact with regard to food security and nutrition, with vulnerable communities being most affected SAVACG (1994) states that children from disadvantaged communities suffer from malnutrition as a result of poverty and unemployment. Malnutrition impacts on the entire family and on the community at large. Malnutrition can cause chronic damage to both physical and mental development of an individual if not properly addressed during the first 5 years of life.

13.2.6 Responses

Several initiatives have been undertaken by the national Government to attempt to minimise the impact of food insecurity among the poor on a national scale with provincial participation. Some of these initiatives include the following:

Primary Schools Nutrition Programme (PSNP);
National Nutrition and Social Development Programme; and
Protein Energy Malnutrition.

The primary objectives of the PSNP are:

To make an approximately 25% contribution towards the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for energy deserving pupils;
To feed 345 721 rural primary school pupils form a total of 384 135 in the Province; and
To feed 30 234 urban primary schools from a total of 151 174.

In 1994, the Nutrition Committee of South Africa designed an Integrated Nutrition Strategy for the country, based on the UNICEF Conceptual Framework. This framework enabled the analysis of the causes of malnutrition and death in any community as it also indicates the inter-relatedness of various contributory factors. It also assisted in clarifying the objectives of actions selected for implementation. This strategy was subsequently translated into the Integrated Nutrition Programme for South Africa.
The Integrated Nutrition Programme (INP) forms apart of the Primary Health Care approach that aims at facilitating a co-ordinated inter-sectoral approach to solving nutrition problems in South Africa. In order to determine the magnitude of the nutrition problems in South Africa and possible solutions to these problems, the country has adopted the UNICEF Conceptual Framework and the fundamental nutrition programming process of Assessment, Analysis and Action, (the triple-A cycle).
The emphasis of the Integrated Nutrition Programme (INP), is on building capacity, knowledge and skills in communities, thereby allowing them to become self-sufficient in terms of their food security and nutritional needs. The focus is on protecting and improving the health of the most vulnerable population groups, women and children. In order to achieve this, it is imperative that inter-sectoral collaboration takes place between the various government departments, private sector, NGOs and CBOs.
Therefore, in order to implement the Integrated Nutrition Programme in the North West Province and achieve both the national and provincial objectives, the INP management team in the Province is focusing on the following:

Primary School Nutrition Programme;
Community Based Nutrition; and
Nutrition Education (including services and promotion programmes at health facilities).

The DACE has forged partnerships with the Land Bank in order to facilitate access to land. The objective is to develop the resource-poor and emerging farmers to encourage self-sufficiency. It is important to recognise that the youth, women and the disabled also require support mechanism through which they can be integrated into the system. These include access to financial and other resources which can enable them to fully participate in the agricultural sector, thus progressing towards a more food secure environment. The beneficiary of such developments, will to a large extent be the environment, whereby sustainable mechanisms can be advocated and practiced.
The Kgora Institute, which focuses on developing food security programmes in the Province, has been identified by the SADC Household Food Security Training Programme as a potential vehicle for capacity building throughout the country and the region. This is an opportunity through which the institute can intensify its programmes in the Province to minimise food insecurity and malnutrition.

13.2.7 Outcomes

The implementation of the Primary School Nutrition Progamme in the North West Province was not altogether successful because of failure of food to reach many schools; food storage problems; leakage of food; the 25% of the energy requirement was not met; and not all schools were reached and learners did not receive food each day at school.
The positive results of this programme were:

The ability to distribute food to deserving pupils (346,966 pupils benefited from the programme);
Job creation and employment opportunities. Presently there are 58 SMMEs on tender involved in the supply, storage and transportation of food to the primary schools;
Between 1994 and 1998, a budget of R496 million was allocated to try to combat the aspect of food insecurity amongst the more vulnerable groups. This programme encountered certain administrative difficulties in that certain of its objectives were undermined through rations not reaching their intended end-users, storage problems and pilferage.

The North West DACE has been engaged in the sectoral development of communities towards rural development with process in place for Women Development Projects, Food plots/Vegetable Projects, Youth Development Projects, Poverty Alleviation through Food Production.

13.2.8 Linkages

This chapter is be linked to:

Chapter 3 on the social environment;
Chapter 4 on economics, and
Chapter 7.1 on agriculture.

13.2.9 Data issues and indicators

Data issues - The availability of data with regard to issues of food security and its associated impacts is available, although it needs to be frequently updated to ensure that remedial measures are executed timeously and efficiently. The adequate and frequent collection of demographic, economic and social information to monitor the extent and nature of change in patterns of food insecurity is essential in managing the reduction of poverty and inequality.

Indicators - The National Core Set of Environmental Indicators for State of Environment Reporting is still in its developmental stages. However, a key list of social indicators which can be used to evaluate aspects such as food security and nutrition include:

Households living below the poverty line;
Informal employment;
Hospital beds;
Child mortality, and
Life expectancy at birth.

13.2.10 Conclusion and recommendations

In order to facilitate the provision of opportunities for creating a food secure society in the North West Province, several issues need to be evaluated:

The availability of resources, both human and financial, to fulfil these roles need to be addressed. For the resource poor majority including women, youth and the disabled, a different approach needs to be undertaken in creating opportunities that can reverse their plight.
Poverty, unemployment and food insecurity are closely correlated. The challenge that faces the Province is to introduce remedial measures that promote economic inclusion of the poor and to also promote upward mobility.
Economic growth and human development are directly linked; therefore poverty needs to be addressed holistically to ensure an enhancement in the quality of life of the economically marginalised.
In addressing economic growth and job creation, it should be noted that the challenge is not only to create employment, but also to create quality employment.
The role of increased public investment in the reduction of poverty plays a pivotal role in the strategic ramifications that will aid the addressing of poverty.
The prioritisation of public investment should also be geared towards rural development, as food insecurity is very prevalent among the rural poor.

13.3 Waste Management

13.3.1 Introduction

Throughout the world, there is growing public awareness regarding pollution and waste, both of which can have a detrimental effect on human health and the natural environment if not properly managed. The first principle in waste management is to avoid the generation of waste in the first place. The potential for different waste types to pollute natural resources differ greatly depending on the composition of the waste and its potential; for degradation over time. South African legislation broadly classifies waste under categories, namely general and hazardous waste. Between these two categories lies a continuum, with a transition from what could be described as non-toxic to toxic.
Waste management in the Province and nationally, has the following broad aims:

Waste prevention
Waste minimisation
Resource recovery
Treatment
Safe disposal

13.3.2 Driving forces

The following main driving forces have been identified for waste management:

With rapid population growth, quantities of waste generated are increasing and this is putting pressure on the environment.
The effect of increasing waste generation also exerts pressure on waste management resources, such as landfills.
Urbanisation is also part of the waste management crisis in that significant amounts of waste are generated in urban environments.
Previous policies did not emphasise responsible consumer behaviour geared towards waste minimisation.

13.3.3 Pressures

Waste issues and problems identified during the Situation Baseline Analysis in the North West Province were found to be of an economical, physical, social and political nature. Waste management was traditionally undertaken on an ad hoc basis in South Africa to meet immediate needs. Prior to the development of the Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF, see Section 13.3.6), the siting of landfills was generally haphazard, without adequate planning and design. The management and operation of landfills was, and still is in some cases, poor, and the control of waste types disposed at the landfills was inadequate. A number of landfills were situated on previously undeveloped land, without any consideration for the possible expansion of nearby communities. This resulted from a lack of integrated planning and inadequate enforcement of proper buffer zones.
Local authorities had neither sufficient funding nor an adequate number of trained staff, to effectively plan and execute their waste management functions. Communities were not involved in the siting of the landfills, which resulted in community resistance to them. The level of services varied between different areas and many people, particularly the previously disadvantaged, were left without proper waste management services.
The lack of capacity within all spheres of government, due to insufficient funding, as well the low priority previously accorded to waste management, were the primary factors contributing to insufficient waste management planning. However, the development of the Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill promoted a change within the waste management sector. Planning landfill sites, proper site location, buffer zones, public participation and proper operating procedures led to an improvement in the disposal component of waste management.

13.3.4 State

Waste is classified as either general, which may be disposed of at any permitted landfill, or hazardous, which may only be disposed of at a permitted hazardous landfill. General waste is any waste that does not pose a significant threat to the environment, if handled correctly, and includes domestic waste, paper, glass, plastics and builders rubble. Hazardous waste includes any waste that can have a significant adverse effect on the environment because of its chemical and physical properties, for example acids and bases, solvents and oils.

Waste generation

Major waste generators/handlers in the North West Province and the waste that is generated include:

Municipalities - Municipalities handle waste from schools (general waste); households (domestic waste, garden refuse, household chemicals); sporting venues (general waste); office complexes (mainly paper); markets (putrescible vegetable matter); abattoirs (putrescible animal matter); shopping complexes (general waste); hotels (general waste and putrescibles) and hospitals (general waste and putrescibles).
Informal Settlements - Waste generated from informal settlements includes sewage, general waste and putrescibles. Currently, most of this waste is not accounted for, and this could result in serious health problems for the vulnerable communities.
Industries - Although most industries fall within Municipal areas they are singled out as a separate major polluter because of the nature of the wastes generated. This is especially so when this pollution finds its way into streams, rivers and dams. Hazardous waste generated from industries includes effluent, sludge, pharmaceutical compounds and flammable waste with a flashpoint lower than 60�C.
Hospitals - Hazardous waste generated by hospitals includes medical waste, such as discarded dressings, swabs, needles, etc.
Agriculture - Hazardous waste generated from agriculture includes biocides, pesticides and insecticides.
Mines - Hazardous waste generated from mines includes:

Radioactive Waste - Short-lived radioactive waste received from hospitals, research institutes and universities is stored at the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA), Pelindaba Nuclear Institute (PNI), Pelindaba Site (specifically the Pelindaba East Bus Shed).

Landfills in the North West Province

There are currently 63 operating landfills in the North West Province, all of which may only accept general waste, although some accept a small amount of hazardous waste. Map 57 indicates the volumes of general waste disposed at landfills in the North West Province respectively. An additional three general landfills are proposed for the Province. Map 58 depicts the volumes of hazardous waste generated. There is no hazardous waste site in the province, the closest hazardous waste sites being Rosslyn and Bon Accord sites near Pretoria (for certain low-hazard wastes) and Holfontein site near Springs in Gauteng Province, which can accept high-hazard wastes.
The total remaining airspace of landfills (excluding mine landfills) in the Province is approximately 5 million m�, and only about 800 000 m� (or 17%) of this is acceptable in terms of the Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill (DWAF 1998). Table 13.3.1 indicates that no region of the North West Province has more than 3,5 years of existing acceptable airspace, while the Bophirima and Eastern District Council regions have no existing acceptable airspace. Also of concern is Rustenburg District Council Region, which has only 2 years of existing acceptable airspace left and 5 years projected acceptable airspace. Of the potential projected airspace, future landfills contribute only 9% of that for the Province. This indicates that insufficient planning has taken place with regards to future waste disposal, and urgent action is needed in this regard.

Table 13.3.1: Projected acceptable airspace and current general waste disposal in the North West Province (Source: DWAF 1997).

Region	Existing Available Acceptable Airspace(m�)	Existing Available Upgradable Airspace(m�)	Projected Future Acceptable Airspace(m�)	Current Waste Disposal(tons/annum)	Remaining Site Life of Existing Sites(years)	Projected Site Life of Existing and Future Sites(years)
Bophirima District Council	0	132 000	192 000	13 000	0	25,5
Central District Council	190 000	1 351 000	0	56 000	3,5	27,5
Eastern District Council	0	652 000	0	50 000	0	13
Rustenburg Regional District Council	160 000	89 000	125 000	76 000	2	5
Southern District Council	449 000	1 356 000	80 000	159 000	3	12
PROVINCIAL TOTAL	799 000	3 580 000	397 000	355 000	2	13,5

Notes:

Acceptable airspace: Complies to Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill
Upgradable airspace: Could be made to comply with Minimum Requirements
It is assumed that future airspace will be acceptable because the landfills will be developed in compliance with the Minimum Requirements.
An in situ landfill density of 1 000kg/m� is assumed.

13.3.5 Impact

The impact of unsatisfactory waste management includes:

Impact on health - The impact of unsatisfactory waste management conditions and practices on the health of people living in rural areas is significant in terms of the quality of life and the education and development opportunities of the communities. Lack of adequate waste management and inadequately maintained or inappropriately designed systems constitute a range of pollution risks to the environment, especially to the surface and ground water resources, which in turn pose a threat to health (high mortality rate in children and a high rate of diarrhoea-related diseases). In South Africa, it is estimated that annually there are in excess of 1,5 million cases of diarrhoea in children under the age of 5 years. Mortality rates are estimated to be greater than 20 per thousand people in the 0 to 1 year age group, of which at least 25% are due directly to water and sanitation related diseases. The North West Province, by virtue of its rural nature, is susceptible to a negative health impact resulting from improper waste management. This could emanate from lack of capacity to monitor responsible waste management practices by environmental authorities.

Socio-economic impact - The effect of unsatisfactory waste management on household economies is serious, keeping the families in a cycle of poverty, lack of knowledge and loss of income due to illness. The national cost of lost productivity, reduced educational potential and curative health costs leads to a major drain on the local and national economies. Additionally, there is personal sorrow due to illness or death.

Environmental impact - The costs of environmental damage to humans, which may be borne immediately or at some point in the future, are principally losses in health, productivity, and amenity. There are practical methods for evaluating such costs, but not for evaluating the fundamentally ethical issue of costs of human activity to other species. Impaired health may lower human productivity, and environmental degradation reduces the productivity of many resources used directly by people. Some productivity declines as a result from damage to environmental assets that people use indirectly. A clear vista or a clean and quiet neighbourhood adds to quality of life.

13.3.6 Responses

Section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) states that the people of South Africa have a right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being, and imposes a duty on the state to promulgate legislation and to implement policies to ensure that this right is upheld. To date, several steps have been taken to ensure this environmental right with respect to pollution and waste management, including:

Draft White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management (IP&WM; DEAT 1997);
National Water Act (No 36 of 1998), and
National Environmental Management Act (No 107 of 1998).

Furthermore, a joint venture undertaken by the DWAF and DEAT, with financial support from the Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED), led to the formulation of a National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) based on the IP&WM Policy.
The objective of integrated pollution and waste management is to follow a holistic waste management approach, which extends over the entire waste cycle and covers the prevention, generation, collection, transportation, treatment and final disposal of waste. The NWMS is a long term strategy to address key issues and problems experienced with uncontrolled and unco-ordinated waste management in South Africa, and aims to reduce the generation and environmental impacts of waste. It follows a waste hierarchy approach (Figure 13.3.1), which is internationally accepted as a rigorous approach to waste management. Waste prevention and minimisation are long-term objectives of the strategy, while a number of remedial actions form part of the short-term objectives, such as the provision of waste collection services to all sections of the population.

Figure 13.3.1: Steps in the waste hierarchy

The NWMS project comprises four phases:

Phase I, the inception phase, was completed in December 1997, during which detailed planning for the project was undertaken in consultation with the stakeholders.
Phase II, the Situation/Baseline Analysis Phase, was completed in May 1998. During this phase, waste issues, problems and needs were identified, and the findings synthesised into an integrated situation/baseline analysis, which was workshopped with stakeholders.
Phase III, the Strategy Formulation Phase, commenced immediately after completion of the Situation/Baseline Analysis Phase, with debate of the key issues identified during that phase, and development of a broad range of strategic options and scenarios.
Phase IV, Action Plans. The process of developing action plans to implement the priority strategic initiatives identified in the Draft NWMS commenced in early 1999. In order to develop a strategy that was practical to implement, the priority initiatives were categorised into short-term (by the year 2004), medium-term (by the year 2008) and long-term (by the year 2012) priorities. Stakeholders have broadly accepted a number of initiatives that require urgent attention. Draft action plans have therefore been developed for integrated waste management planning, general waste collection, and a waste information system, as well as a project plan for the implementing instruments. During the development of each draft action plan, due cognisance was taken of stakeholders' comments compiled in the Analysis Report. The purpose of the action plans is to prepare for the implementation of integrated waste management. Priority initiatives of the NWMS, all of which require significant attention in North West Province, include the following:

The establishment of waste collection services in poorly serviced residential areas;
Permitting all landfills in agreement with the Minimum Requirements by the year 2005;
The control, and longer-term phasing out, of scavenging on landfills; and
The development of a programme for the integrated management of mining and power station waste.

Badly managed landfills (or waste disposal sites) represent significant points of pollution, and in order to manage this, the Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill were published by DWAF in 1994, with a Second Edition in 1998). It is by means of a Landfill Permit System, instituted in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act (section 20 of Act No. 73 of 1989), that the Minimum Requirements for waste disposal are implemented and enforced. The Act states that no person shall establish, provide or operate any waste disposal site without a permit issued by the Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry and subject to the conditions contained in such a permit. Landfills are classified according to size of operation, waste type and potential for significant leachate generation. The objective is to take pro-active steps to prevent the degradation of water quality and the environment and to improve the standard of waste disposal in South Africa.

13.3.7 Outcomes

The NWMS is currently at the implementation stage, and is anticipated to have a positive outcome on pollution control and waste management in South Africa in the long term. For example, one of the priority initiatives is to provide waste collection services to poorly serviced residential areas, which will in turn improve the living standards of the communities, alleviate pollution in these areas caused by littering and the burning of waste and create jobs in the waste management market.
The baseline study undertaken by DWAF in 1997 revealed a number of issues requiring urgent attention regarding landfills in North West Province. These include:

All landfills must be permitted in terms of the Minimum Requirements. Landfills that are unacceptable according to the Minimum Requirements require a closure permit. A number of landfills are situated on dolomites, which is considered a fatal flaw in terms of the Minimum Requirements due to the stability and ground water pollution risks posed. There are also a number of landfills that generate leachate, and are possibly polluting the ground water, which is of particular concern where ground water is used for domestic purposes.
Security at landfills is required to be addressed. At a number of landfills theft of fencing is widespread, causing problems with access control.
Hazardous waste may not be disposed of at general landfills. Abattoir and medical wastes are known to be disposed of at two general landfills, which poses public health risks.
Due to some confusion over the naming of landfills and subsequent problems arising from this in the collection of data, it is recommended by DWAF that a site naming protocol be instituted, which includes the site name, organisation responsible, town and year the site was opened.
Education and training of waste management practitioners is essential.

There is a lack of interaction between government departments in the North West Province regarding waste management. The Consultative National Environmental Policy Process (CONNEPP) resulted in the development of the Environmental Management Policy for South Africa and the promulgation of the National Environment Management Act (NEMA) (Act 107 of 1998). This Act provides for co-operative environment governance by establishing principles and procedures for decision-making on matters affecting the environment.
Recycling initiatives in South Africa are currently restricted to a number of commercially viable projects that are not supported or regulated by legislation. Private recycling companies and individuals currently initiate and drive recycling projects, however, in the North West Province, the sorters/salvagers are hindered by a lack of transport for recycled materials. A significant number of schools have started collection points for waste material that can be recycled, and this is aimed at creating awareness in children to encourage sustainable waste management practices.
People have started caring about their lives and the environment as a whole, and have realised the negative impacts of unsatisfactory waste management on their lives. It is predicted that for the forthcoming ten years, people will have a growing understanding of environmental issues and how their behaviour (values and attitudes) can lessen the impacts on the environment.

13.3.8 Linkages

This section has linkages with:

Chapter 3 on the social environment;
Chapter 4 on the economic environment;
Chapter 5 on the policy and legislative environment;
Chapter 7 on industrial and economic activities;
Chapter 8 on air quality
Chapter 9 on land transformation and soil quality;
Chapter10 on water resources;
Chapter13 on toxicity in the environment;
Chapter 14 on environmental education and capacity building;
Chapter 15 on integrated environmental management;
Chapter 16 on environmental monitoring, auditing and rehabilitation.

13.3.9 Data issues and indicators

Data issues - Data regarding landfills in the North West Province is readily available from the baseline study undertaken by DWAF (1997), however, currently there is a lack of data available on waste recovered from recycling; energy recovered from waste and location of contaminated land.

Indicators - A set of environmental indicators have been developed through the National Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. A set of proposed indicators for waste management from the DEAT indicator initiative is presented in Table 13.3.2.
At this stage, in the North West Province, most of the data required for the indicators cannot be supplied since a survey is still in progress to obtain the data. Table 13.3.2 shows the indicators that will be used during the data analysis after the completion of the provincial survey (data that is presently available is provided). The indicators listed in For example, they may be representative of a particular event, show trends over time, give early warning about irreversible trends where possible, or be important to policy decisions and planning. Table 13.3.3 represent those indicators that were identified as important representations of waste within human settlements and internationally.

Table 13.3.2: Indicators for waste management in the North West Province.

Indicator	Data
Quantity and composition of domestic solid waste generated	Not available
Quantity and composition of domestic waste disposed to landfill	Quantity: 385 957 tons per annum
Quantity and composition of waste recovered from recycling	Not available
Quantity and composition of commercial and industrial waste generated	Not available
Quantity of energy recovered from waste	Not available
Proportion of sludge and bio-solids re-cycled	Not available
Quantity and composition of domestic hazardous waste disposed to landfill	Quantity: 3 484 tons per annum
Amount, characteristics and location of contaminated land	Not available

Table 13.3.3: The proposed list of Waste Management Indicators for South Africa (Source: DEAT, 2001).

Issue	Indicator	Type	Level	Frequency	Scale	Linkages
Waste volumes produced	Total amount of solid waste produced per capita per year	S	2	Annual	Provincial	CSD Environment
	General landfill airspace supply verses demand	P/S	2	5 yearly	Provincial
	Amount of hazardous waste produced per sector per year	S	2	Annual	Provincial	CSD Environment
	Hazardous waste landfill airspace supply verses demand	P/S	2	5 yearly	Provincial
Legislation and Enforcement	Percentage of solid waste recycled per year and per material type	R	2	Annual	Provincial	CSD Environment
Legislation and Enforcement	Percentage landfill permit applications and permits granted for operating and future landfills by class	R	1	Annual	Provincial

CSD: Commission for Sustainable Development

13.3.10 Conclusions and recommendations

The NWMS is a long-term strategy to address the key issues and problems currently experienced with waste management in South Africa. Waste prevention, minimisation and recycling are long-term objectives of the strategy, while a number of remedial actions form part of the short-term objectives. The strategy is currently at the implementation stage.
Waste management issues that require urgent attention in the North West Province include:

Interaction between government departments in the North West Province regarding waste management must be co-ordinated;
Legislation must be promulgated to implement recycling;
Planning for future waste disposal sites in the Province must be addressed. Of particular concern is Rustenburg District Council Region;
All landfills must be permitted in terms of the Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal to Landfill. Landfills that are unacceptable according to the Minimum Requirements require closure;
Security at landfills needs to be addressed;
Hazardous waste disposal at general landfills must be prevented;
Education and training of waste management practitioners is essential.

13.4 Water Supply and Sanitation

13.4.1 Introduction

Approximately 1.3 billion people in the developing world lack access to adequate quantities of clean water and nearly 3 billion people are without proper sanitation. An estimated 10 000 people die every day from water and sanitation related diseases and thousands more suffer from a range of debilitating illnesses. The impact of inadequate water and sanitation services falls primarily on the poor. Lack of access arises both from income shortages and the specific cultural, economic, regulatory and the prevailing institutional environment. The North West Province also experiences similar problems in relation to water and sanitation, especially in the rural areas. A number of communities in the province have a heavy dependence on groundwater for their domestic supply. This has proven problematic because of regular contamination and wastage of and wastage of groundwater resource, leading to compromised health situations. Raising awareness needs to be a long-term goal and an area in which the government has a clear mandate.

13.4.2 Driving Forces

The primary driving forces for sanitation and water supply in the North West Province are:

Poverty - Poverty (see Chapters 3) and (chapter4) is the single greatest burden for South Africa. It is not merely the lack of income, which determines poverty, but also the enormous proportion of very basic needs that cannot be met, including sanitation and water supply.

Population growth - An increase in the population (see Chapter 3) places pressure on the authorities to provide basic services to all people, as well as placing resource pressures on the environment (particularly water resources). This is exacerbated by the increasing need for service provision within informal settlements in the Province. There is no infrastructure provided to many of the informal areas, resulting in people living in substandard conditions. The environment pays the ultimate price because unserviced communities resort to unsustainable practices in the absence of proper services.

Past policies and legislation - The absence of a coherent national programme to improve community sanitation has left an obvious legacy. Nearly half of South Africa's population does not have, within their own homes, the healthy environment as outlined in section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996).

Lack of institutional capacity - The water supply and sanitation service needs in the North West Province cannot be met due to the lack of financial resources and human resources capacity within the provincial and local governments. Although DWAF has taken over the responsibility of provision of these services, there is still a need for the local authorities to deliver these in the future. This problem is exacerbated by the lack of departmental integration at local and provincial level.

Lack of integrated planning - Planning does not adequately consider population density trends when considering sanitation approaches and technologies. The greatest health challenges are in fast growing peri-urban and informal settlements. Not enough attention is being focused on rapidly growing peri-urban and informal settlements, where the problems of poverty and high density compound all the other challenges facing urban and rural infrastructure provision.

13.4.3 Pressures

The inadequate sewage disposal facilities combined with unhygienic practises represent South Africa's sanitation problem. The practices are related to:

A lack of access to health and hygiene education;
Inadequate water supplies (quality and quantity);
Poor facilities for the safe disposal of water and other domestic waste;
Inadequate toilet facilities.

Water is a scarce resource in North West Province and it should be protected and used efficiently. There are many threats of pollution where there are no sanitation systems or where they do not function efficiently. This poses a risk is to water supplies in rivers, dams and underground and can cause serious health problems. The proper operation of sanitation systems is essential to protect the environment.

13.4.4 State

In 1994 it was estimated that approximately 21 million people in South Africa lacked access to adequate sanitation services. Of these, 13,6 million had inadequate sanitation, but had some form of access to the service. Approximately 6,4 million people had no sanitation facilities at all (Figure 13.4.1).
Generally the rural settlements, informal settlements and traditional villages have little or no basic services (water, sewerage, communications, electricity) compared to the large towns, even when they are located adjacent to the large towns. The cost of supplying services to rural areas is very high, with little Government budget for these services. Thus the (poor) consumers have to pay for the installation of services. The situation is the worst in the low-density rural areas of the north and west.

Figure 13.4.1: Water supply and sanitation access by province in 1996 (Source: DBSA 2000).

The Southern District has the best water supply infrastructure. The rest of the Province has a great need for improved water supply infrastructure. However, measured against the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) standards and compared to other provinces, the rural water supply infrastructure is relatively acceptable. The Southern District has the lowest sanitation needs whereas the Bophirima District has the highest sanitation needs (Table 13.4.1).

Table 13.4.1: Growth rate, unemployment, water and sanitation needs in the North West Province. (Source DWAF 1998a.).

District	Growth Rate		Unemployment		Water needs below RDP criteria		Sanitation needs below criteria RDP
	% pa	Rank	% un-employ-ment	Rank	%	rank	%	rank
Bophirima	0.8-2.5	1	40.75	5	88.8	5	93.1	5
Central	0.8-4.2	2	23.49	3	78.2	4	81.1	4
Rustenburg	0.8-5.0	3	19.12	2	52.1	3	63.6	3
Southern	1.6-4.2	4	14.50	1	5.4	1	32.6	1
Eastern	3.3-5.0	5	26.98	4	25.4	2	54.1	2

Water supply

There are five water supply authorities charged supplying bulk water in the North West Province (see Map 59). These are Goldfields Water Board, Magalies Water Board, Rand Water Board, North West Water Supply Authority, Western Transvaal Water Supply Company.
The current situation is one of inequality in terms of access to potable water in the Province. Almost all White households (more than 99%) have the use of running tap water in their dwellings as opposed to 27% of African households. Among African households 51% in the urban areas have a tap in their residences and a further 38% have access to a tap on site. In the non-urban areas the situation indicates 11% having a tap in their residences, 33% having a tap on site, 2% have to obtain their water from a river, stream or dam, and 24% use borehole water (Figure 13.4.2).

Figure 13.4.2: Sources of water for drinking in African households in urban and non-urban areas of North West. (Source: DBSA 2000).

Sanitation

The North West Province also has its share of a sanitation backlog that needs to be addressed. However, the Province's water supply and sanitation situation is considered to be better than most other provinces in the country (Figure 13.4.1). One of the reasons that the Province is in its current state, in terms of sanitation and water supply, is because of intervention mechanisms that have been implemented. Foreign donor agencies have contributed positively to improving the situation in the Province. The Danish Government, through Danida, has set up programmes that have been in operation in the Province to specifically address the water supply and sanitation situation. It is of interest to note that the North West Province current provision of basic water supply and basic sanitation exceeds the national average.
A wide variety of sanitation systems are currently in use in South Africa (Table 13.4.2), some more commonly than others, and with varying degrees of success. They impact differently on the environment and have widely differing costs and degrees of acceptability to the users. Some of these do not meet the criteria for adequate sanitation but are widely used in the North West, such as pit latrines (Figure 13.4.3).

System	Degree of complexity	Approx. water (l/flush)
VIP	Simple, but needs proper design and construction; periodic desludging or relocation	Nil
LOFLOS	Some types use mechanical flushing; soakaway or soakpit needs proper design; periodic desludging	0,5 - 1
Septic Tank	Soakaway needs proper design and construction; periodic desludging	6 - 15
Solids free sewerage	Needs reticulation and treatment works; periodic desludging	3 - 15
Conventional sewerage	Needs reticulation and treatment works	6-15

Figure 13.4.3: Types of sanitation used among the African households in the urban and non-urban areas of the North West Province. (Source: Statistics South Africa 1996).

One disadvantage of many on-site systems of sanitation, including all types of pit toilets and LOFLOS, is their inability to handle large quantities of water (except in cases where soil percolation rates are high). This may mean that sullage or "grey water" generated by the users has to be disposed of separately through a sullage soakaway.

13.4.5 Impact

Inadequate water and sanitation services can bring with them a particular risk in each of the dimensions already described. And, water availability and quality may both be highly seasonal. During the dry season, the urban poor face higher water prices, while the rural poor face longer treks for lower quality water. Also, sewage return flows to water bodies, bearing pollutants of various types, make up a bigger proportion of total flows, reducing water quality and making effective treatment more difficult. The risk is faced in household consumption and in the use of water in economic activity such as agriculture. The poor are particularly unequipped to cope with this risk, since coping requires expensive storage or additional treatment. During the wet season, inadequate drainage and other sanitation infrastructure becomes problematic, as overflowing polluted water may stand in the streets for long periods.

Water supply

The lack of adequate water supply in the North West Province has a socio economic impact. Traditional poverty measures focus on income, but the rural and urban poor may not only have lower incomes, they probably face higher cost for water. Water is one of the few commodities that must be consumed daily and for which there are no substitutes. The lack of network water connections for the urban poor, or of any water service for the rural poor, typically leaves them buying from water vendors at high per litre prices, waiting in long queues at, or walking long distances to, public sources; and incurring additional costs for storing and boiling water. The legislation stipulates in the minimum standard for basic water supply that the service should be within 200 metres of a household. The lack of convenient and affordable access to water reduces a poor household's consumption of other commodities and services, leaves it consuming less than the optimum amount of water for good hygiene, and impacts on health and labour productivity of the household members. It may also reduce income-generating opportunities of the household, thereby further reducing income and consumption.
Nationally, dwindling availability of clean water per capita will increase the economic cost of water and, in a situation of scarcity, limit the potential for economic development. Locally, communities that fail to protect their surface and ground waters from pathogens have fewer options for drinking water and require more expensive technologies for extracting water from deeper aquifers or for treating surface water to drinkable levels. In the urban context, where water may be supplied from a utility, increasing costs of extraction or treatment are passed on to consumers in terms of higher prices. The poor have fewer resources, hence they disproportionately suffer the consequences.

Sanitation

Poor sanitation facilities can pose a tremendous social cost through pollution of rivers and groundwater. Lack of access to proper sanitation results in people resorting to alternative means, which have an even greater impact on their health and the environment. Sanitation problems have three main effects:

Impact on human health - The rural areas are particularly prone to impact on human health from lack of adequate sanitation. Most of the sanitation systems are improperly designed or situated, and pollute the underground and surface water systems. This, together with the lack of safe water and poor personal hygiene leads to transmission of pathogenic organisms, such as cholera, gardiasis, E-coli and others. Diarrhoea accounts for nearly 30 percent of the burden of childhood communicable diseases, and has a large impact on the earning capacity of the poor.

Environmental impact - The main impact of organic wastes on the environment is on the water resources. Lack of adequate sewage treatment facilities, poor sanitation system design and siting can cause pollution of the water resources and eutrophication
National Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of 1998);

Water Services Act (Act 108 of 1997), and

National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998).

See Chapter 5 for more information on legislation.

Institutional responses

RDP programme - Prior to 1994, there was no real focus and coherent effort to provide sanitation to those that needed it, mainly the rural poor. The government's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), started to address the sanitation issue, but due to the backlog associated with this problem, it will take concerted efforts to correct the situation.
The RDP's short-term goal was to provide every person with adequate facilities for health, which includes establishing a national water and sanitation programme. The national water and sanitation programme was aimed at providing all households with clean, safe water supply of 20-30 litres per capita per day, an adequate/safe sanitation facility per site and a refuse removal system to all urban households.
Government has set realistic limits on the number of grants and subsidies that it will provide for services such as sanitation, with the funds needed to build the basic minimum level of service. For new housing in urban areas, this will mostly happen as part of the national housing subsidy scheme that is used to provide on site and internal services. For existing urban households the sanitation subsidy will be available through the Municipal Infrastructure Programme or other funds. For rural households subsidies will be available through a similar programme and will be set according to clear rules.
The basic level of service referred to as one that will be adequate to protect everyone's health, since improved health helps people to work better and spend less on doctors and medicines. Where local communities desire more convenient levels of service, they are free to choose this provided that they are willing to pay the extra costs of building and running the system.
Communities have the responsibility to choose and implement the mix of service levels that they desire taking into account government policies and socio-economic realities. Government looks at policy principles such as "demand driven" and "user pays". These are essentially economic instruments to enable households to set priorities for themselves, based on their capacity and willingness to pay for a particular level of service, and to inform the planners who serve them. Where local communities aspire to and are willing to pay the extra costs of a more convenient (more expensive) level of service, they are free to raise the extra finance out of own sources or from the capital market, provided all the extra running costs are met from within that community.

Danida Programme - The classical mechanisms of transmission of waterborne diseases are poor personal hygiene, described as the "short cycle", and environmental pollution, described as the "long cycle". Typically, physical investments in community sanitation most effectively break the long cycle. Breaking the short cycle requires changes in personal behaviours and practices, a more difficult challenge. Programmes to address the short cycle in the North West Province have been undertaken under the auspices of Danida (Danish International Development Assistance). It is still early to assess the impact of these programmes, but is a step in the right direction.
The Danida approach to improving the water supply and sanitation situation in the North West province, aims to address the problem in a holistic manner. Programmes that have been put in place include:

Sanitation and groundwater awareness projects;
Schools groundwater awareness building;
Sustainability of school groundwater awareness building;
Kraaipan, Setlagole, Madibogo KSM sanitation project;
School toilets cleaning project;
Cost recovery workshops and follow-up;
Setlagole cost recovery project;
Cost recovery models for Madidi;
Capacity building and cost recovery:Bophirima District Council;
Billing and revenue collection;
Subsidy reduction study: North West Water Supply Authority;
Winterveld capacity building project;
Capacity building for Water Board members;
Local Government training courses relating to Water Services.

Other programmes that have direct impacts on sanitation provision include:

The National Housing Programme in urban areas, which provides a subsidy for internal and on-site sanitation infrastructure to serve households in receipt of the subsidy (see Section 13.1);
The Land Reform Programme which includes settlement grants to provide domestic infrastructure;
The Municipal Infrastructure Programme of the Department of Constitutional Development, which finances infrastructure (including sanitation) in areas where the local government needs financial support to provide it;
The national public works programme, which aims to create employment, entrepreneurial opportunities and capacity building while providing infrastructure assets;
The environmental health programmes of the Department of Health, which promote sanitation improvements as an essential contribution to improved health;
The integrated pollution control initiative of DEAT;
Water supply and water resource management programmes of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, which provide the water needed for sewerage systems, but also impose constraints by requiring that sanitation be provided in a manner which is not detrimental to the quality of the nation's water resources; and
DWAF's community-based water supply programmes, which provide a platform for the implementation of sanitation activities through local water and sanitation committees supporting the development of local government structures.

These are some of the many intervention mechanisms implemented with aid of the foreign funding to improve the water supply and sanitation. There are also several forums and agencies, such as the North West sanitation forum.
The following factors influence the choice of technology, namely affordability, institutional needs, environmental impact, social issues, water supply service levels, reliability, upgrading, site-specific issues, use of local resources and settlement patterns.

13.4.7 Outcomes

The capital and running costs of improved sanitation, and particularly water-borne sewerage, are very high compared with what low-income households can afford. Recent estimates of infrastructure needs in South Africa have shown that very large capital investments are needed to construct full water-borne sewerage systems for all households that are not serviced. Even if the capital funds were available, there would still be problems, as large numbers of households would be unable to afford the regular running costs of such a system. This raises the issue of affordability at two levels, namely that of each local authority area and of the national economy.
Government will not increase the amounts of intergovernmental transfers currently used to subsidise running cost shortfalls in some parts of the country. It is the prerogative of provinces to decide on the distribution of these transfers, but the total amount available will not be increased, and may well decrease rapidly over the next few years. The implications for local authorities is that all costs of a recurrent nature for municipal services, such as operations, maintenance and loan repayments, must be met from user charges and local taxes. This must be done without further recourse to government running cost subsidies.
Many low-income households are presently enjoying a level of service whose true cost, at average consumption levels, is beyond their ability to pay. In such cases government proposes to reformulate the tariff structures for municipal services to encourage local authorities to assist low-income families through a low cost "lifeline" tariff for modest levels of consumption.
The existing DWAF rural capital subsidy of R600 is currently not reaching the targeted poor. The subsidy is very expensive to administer, and the demand is relatively low because households cannot afford to contribute the balance of the cost of a Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIP).
The current sanitation and water supply in the North West Province needs to be strengthened to achieve even better results. Experience from national and international water and sanitation programmes has shown how essential it is to link water supply and sanitation with health and hygiene education. Improved sanitation facilities will only achieve a parallel reduction in negative health incidents if they are developed alongside hygiene programmes.
This has been one of the lessons learnt from the Danida experience in the KMS sanitation project. Because the system was designed for the community instead of with the community, there was no buy in. Issues of vandalism have been noted in some of the projects, and this emanated from the lack of a sense of ownership by the locals.

13.4.8 Linkages

This section is linked to the following sections or chapters in the report:

Chapter 3 on social environment;
Chapter 5 on the legislative environment;
Chapter 6.1 on settlement patterns;
Chapter 10 on water resources;
Chapter 13.1 on housing.

13.4.9 Data issues and indicators

Data issues - Data on water supply and sanitation for the North West Province is not readily available. There is a need to build a database for information relating to sanitation and water supply. Such database will inform planners and decision makers on making informed decisions. Indicators - Indicators to monitor environmental conditions, pressures on the environment and causes for environmental change, are being developed through the National Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. A set of proposed indicators from the DEAT indicator initiative is presented in Table 13.4.2.

Table 13.4.2: The proposed list of Water supply and Sanitation Indicators for South Africa (Source: DEAT, 2001).

Indicator	Type	Level	Frequency	Scale	Linkages
Groundwater contribution to GDP	D	2	Annual	Sectoral
Surface water affordability	R	1	Annual	National
Number of people affected by waterborne diseases	R	1	Annual	National
Number of people with access to sanitation	S	1	Monthly	National	CSD Social, DPLG
Number of people with access to water	S	1	Monthly	National	CSD Social, DPLG

13.4.10 Conclusion and recommendations

Environmental sustainability of sanitation systems must be considered in terms of both provision and ongoing maintenance. Sanitation systems must be designed and constructed in such a way as to minimise potential pollution throughout its life cycle. Monitoring mechanisms must be put in place to ensure early detection of pollution.
A number of communities in the North West Province have a heavy dependence on groundwater for the their domestic supply. This has proven problematic because of regular contamination and wastage of groundwater resources, leading to compromised health and uncertainty for the future.
The potential for pollution of water resources by sanitation systems requires that water quality monitoring programmes be instituted as an integral part of sanitation projects. Programmes need to be developed which take into account the specific conditions prevailing in an area. When evaluating the most appropriate type of sanitation systems for a particular situation, the relevant water quality objectives for local water resources must be taken into account.
Sound environmental principles and environmental ethics should be created in all communities. Emphasis must be placed on formal as well as informal environmental education activities.
Service providers must plan to achieve full coverage as soon as practicable, at least to a basic level of service. The extension or upgrading of a service should not result in a request to central government for a larger recurrent cost subsidy.
Existing conventional municipal arrangements need to address the following four objectives or for a new programme with the following objectives needs to be implemented:

Co-ordinating between the programmes of different departments and tiers of government with respect to technical, financial, communications and other dimensions;
Undertaking pilot activities in support of the promotion of adequate sanitation systems;
Providing technical, financial and communications support for the achievement of adequate sanitation for those communities which are not assisted by existing programmes and where conventional communal systems are unlikely (e.g. in rural areas, small towns, peri-urban areas and informal settlements);
Training personnel and building capacity at local and provincial levels in order to extend the programme to all South Africans throughout the country.

New developments and upgrading existing sanitary facilities should take into consideration the level of participation and cooperation that different government departments need to engage themselves in. An area based approach and not project based, will be more cost effective and has broader reach and coverage. School sanitation needs a higher priority (National Sanitation Summit 2000).

13.5 Toxicity in the Environment

13.5.1 Introduction

Human activities such as the intensified exploitation of natural resources; increasing urbanisation; industrialised mass production, processing, manufacturing, storage, agricultural practices and the use of chemicals in households, has inevitably resulted in toxic substances inadvertently or deliberately finding their way into the environment. Some of these substances accumulate in soils, water and air, eventually finding their way into living organisms, including humans.
The term "toxicity" refers to the poisonous quality of a substance in relation to its degree or strength to poison a living organism. The amount of a toxicant necessary to produce a detrimental effect is also important, and whether acute (effects detectable in the short-term) or chronic (long-term) poisoning is occurring. Some substances such as many trace elements (e.g. selenium) and vitamins, are essential to the physiological functioning of organisms, but in high concentrations are extremely toxic, or, as in the case of selenium, carcinogenic. Hence, the effects of toxicants are mostly dose dependent and vary -

in their nature, from sensitisation to complete destruction of tissue;
in their severity, from undetectable to lethal consequences;
in their extent, from localised to generalised symptoms;
in their spread, from perturbations in a few to more individuals of a single or more species.

The toxicity of a chemical to living organisms largely depends on the route of exposure, and this could include:

Percutaneous or dermal (absorption of a substance through the skin);
Subcutaneous (injection of a substance beneath the skin but above the underlying layers of tissue);
Intravenous (injection of a substance into a vein);
Inhalation (delivery of a substance via the lungs);
Oral (delivery of a substance via the mouth).

Some common toxic substances harmful to the environment and human health include heavy metals such as lead and mercury, biocides, heterocyclic organic compounds, pesticides and selenium compounds as well as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). One of the major global toxicity challenges is the accumulation of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the environment and in living organisms. Persistent organic pollutants can be found in trace quantities in soils, water and the atmosphere include many pesticides, dioxins and furans. These pose particularly serious risks to human health as they persist in the environment over many years, and may bioaccumulate in living organisms, becoming magnified in higher organisms in the ecosystem. Because of the tendency of these chemicals to accumulate in fatty tissue, many (such as DDT and dioxin) are sometimes found in significant quantities in human breast milk. Many are mobilised during pregnancy when fat reserves are depleted, and subsequently find their way across the placenta to the newly developing foetus. There may be special windows of vulnerability in the development of foetuses when these chemicals can have long-term, irreversible effects on the reproductive and neurological systems.
This section addresses toxicity in the environment within the context of the abovementioned factors in the North West Province. The health implications of viruses, toxic substances produced by bacteria and mycotoxins produced by various fungi such as moulds in causing diseases in humans and animals and plant poisonings are not covered in this section. However, it is acknowledged that aflatoxins, diplodia toxins, ochratoxins which emanate from mouldy peanuts, soybeans, sorghum, maize and other cereals, hay and silage under the warm climatic conditions found in the Province do pose a serious health threat to humans and livestock (W. Giesecke, NWDACE, pers. comm., 2002).

13.5.2 Driving forces

The following are some of the driving forces accountable for toxicity in the North West Province. The drive for a higher standard of living for an ever-increasing population results in toxic substances being produced or consumed through:

Industrialization - use and production of toxic substances in industrial processes;
Other forms of development which produce toxic substances e.g. manufacturing and mineral processing;
Agriculture - drive to increase crop yields through the use of pesticides and herbicides;
Transportation of goods - which results in emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as well as heavy metals;
Technological advancements and the invention of new substances such as pesticides for improved agricultural yields or production;
Transformation of the natural environment to suit the needs of humans results in a diminished capacity of the environment to absorb toxic substances.
Climatic conditions and the nature of the media which absorbing toxic substances may play a role in the extent of the toxic effects on living organisms.

13.5.3 Pressures

Many of the activities that cause toxicity problems in the North West Province environment are essential for day-to-day life of ordinary people. In many instances, it is difficult to address the causal factors in isolation, since these are often interwoven. For instance, the services offered by hospitals are essential to ensure the healthy well-being of the people of the North West Province. In the provisioning of this essential service, there is medical waste generated which has to be disposed of in a certain manner. So far, incineration has been widely used mainly due to the absence of viable options. Incineration emits harmful gases such as dioxins and PCBs, which are highly carcinogenic in nature. Where incineration is no option, waste should be disposed of in a waste disposal site, the control of which lies with the municipalities.
Some of the major sources of toxic substances which exert pressure on the environment include:

Incineration of medical waste from hospitals;
Application of herbicides and pesticides in the communal and commercial crop farms;
Hazardous residues emanating from livestock farms, such as antimicrobial drugs, growth hormones and antiparasitic drugs;
Different forms of pollution from mines and other industries;
Emergence and growing number of informal settlements, disposal of household waste classified as hazardous;
Burning of plastics;
Poor sanitary conditions and facilities;
Accidental spillages of toxic substances, and
Ignorant an inappropriate disposal of toxic substances which then diffuse into the environment.

13.5.4 State

The following list of toxic substances is presented from the preliminary assessment of the North West State of the Environment 1995 (Nel et al. 1995):

Dangerous and toxic matter generated from industries and hospitals - These include medical waste (tissue, blood, swabs, needles, expired drugs etc.), paint and paint sludge, pharmaceutical compounds, waste with a flashpoint, as measured with the closed container method, lower than 600C.

Dangerous and toxic matter generated from mines - The mines in the North West Province generate a number of different wastes, depending on the type of mine:

Gold Mines - arsenic compounds, inorganic cyanide amongst others. Radioactive substances such as uranium, radon and thorium (see section 13.6);
Platinum Mines - arsenic compounds, cadmium and cadmium compounds, inorganic halogen-containing compounds, inorganic sulphur-containing compounds, silver compounds and thallium and thallium compounds;
Other Mines - asbestos (dust and loose fibres), chrome compounds (e.g. Chromium VI), copper compounds, nickel and nickel compounds and vanadium compounds;
All Mines - acids and alkalis and laboratory chemicals.

Dangerous and toxic matter generated from the agricultural sector - Biocides and phytopharmaceutical matter, dangerous heterocyclic organic compounds, inorganic halogen, pesticides and herbicides, veterinary compounds, selenium and selenium products are used in the course of farming. If not handled and stored correctly, these substances could have devastating effects on both the natural environment and human life. These can be split into two main types:

Herbicides - These long-term poisons, Ethidimuron, Tebuthiuron, Bromacil and Uracil (effective for up to eight years) are sprayed from an aircraft, making them totally non-selective. The areas of the Province on which they have been sprayed are now barren and sterile. There is also evidence of large-scale mismanagement of pesticides (organophosphates) taking place with the use of centre point irrigation systems on cash crops.

Pesticides- Migratory locusts in the North West Province are dealt with through the use of herbicides. Deltamethrin is at present the only legal poison used for the control of the migratory locust. It is a pyrethroid which is comparatively safe for warm-blooded animals and birds, but is dangerous for fish and invertebrates. Poisons which are still used illegally are organophosphates such as Fenitrothion, Diazinon; organochlorines such as gamma-BHC, Dieldrin (banned), DDT (banned) and Aldrin Arsenic compounds (banned). Large quantities of these illegal chemicals are still stored on farms, in government stores and at co-ops and pose a real threat to the environment, especially as in many cases they are still being used. Trichlorfon, Pyrethroids and Carbonates may be used for the control of insect pests, but the potential mismanagement of these poisons poses a serious environmental threat.

Control of "problem animals" - There are numerous poisons used illegally to control what are termed "problem animals" such as jackal, hyaena, feral dogs, bushpig, caracal, baboons and vervet monkeys. The only legal poison, which may be used, and exclusively on canines (jackal, feral dogs and hyaena), is Strychnine.
There is also a range of rodenticides available including anti-coagulants and phosphide types of poisons (Aluminium phosphide and Zinc phosphide). Those illegally used are 1080, Aldicarb and Carbofuron. In the North West Province, the following poisons are often illegally used: carbonates such as Aldicarb, Carbofuron, Benfuracarb and Bendiocarb; and organophosphates including Monocrotophos, Parathion, 1080, Fenthion and Diazinon.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) - Are organic compounds which, to a varying degree, resist photolytic, biological and chemical degradation. POPs are often halogenated and characterised by low water solubility and high lipid solubility, enabling them to bioaccumulate in fatty tissues (Ritter, et. al. 1995). They are also semi?volatile, enabling them to move long distances in the atmosphere before deposition occurs. The issue of persistent organic pollutants (POP's) has recently become one of global concern. Table 13.5.1 lists POP's that have been recognised globally as the most important by the United Nations, known as the "dirty dozen". However, little is known about the extent or concentrations of POPs in environment of the North West Province at present.

Table 13.5.1: Significant Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and their uses (Source: Ritter, et. al., 1995).

POP	Uses
Aldrin	Local ectoparisiticide. Insecticide. Pesticide used to control soil insects such as termites, corn rootworm.
Chlordane	Ectoparisiticide. Broad spectrum contact insecticide used on agricultural crops including vegetables, small grains, maize. Termiticide. Additive in plywood adhesives.
DDT	Disease vector control (e.g. malaria). Used in dicofol.
Dieldrin	Agriculture - control of soil insects. Disease vector control.
Dioxins(Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins -PCDDs)	Released from waste incinerators. Aluminium and zinc production. Fossil fuel fired boilers. Incineration of coal, peat and wood. Car emissions.
Endrin	Foliar insecticide used on cotton and grains. Rodenticide.
Furans(Polychlorinated dibenzofurans - PCDFs)	Released from waste incinerators. Aluminium and zinc production. Fossil fuel fired boilers. Incineration of coal, peat and wood. Car emissions.
Heptachlor	Non?systemic stomach and contact insecticide for soil insects and termites. Wood treatment.
Hexachlorobenzene	Solvent in pesticide. Fungicide - control of bunt of wheat. Byproduct of carbon tetrachloride, perchlorethylene, trichloroethylene and pentachlorbenzene manufacture.
Mirex	Termiticide - used against harvester termites in South Africa.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)	Used in industry - dielectrics in transformers and capacitors, heat exchange fluids, paint additives, carbonless copy paper and in plastics Released from waste incinerators. Aluminium and zinc production. Fossil fuel fired boilers.
Toxaphene	Nonsystemic and contact insecticide used primarily on cotton, cereal grains fruits, nuts and vegetables. Control of ticks and mites in livestock.

13.5.5 Impact

The negative impact of toxicity ranges from respiratory diseases on human beings through to the depletion of the ozone layer. Chemicals that have been proven to be harmful, such as benzene, lead and other heavy metals, carbon monoxide, volatile nitrites, pesticides and herbicides enter the human bloodstream through the nose, mouth, skin, and the digestive tract. These substances can have harmful effects on the blood, bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes. Lead can interfere with normal red blood cell membranes by inhibiting important enzymes (Nutramed.com 2001).
Exposure to benzene, be it as a cleansing agent, gasoline or in cigarette smoke can result in the development of leukaemia and lymphoma. Benzene has a suppressive effect on the bone marrow and it impairs blood cells maturation and amplification. Benzene exposure may also result in a diminished number of blood cells or total bone marrow loss.
Carbon monoxide arising from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials, binds to the haemoglobin over two hundred times more avidly than oxygen. This results in Carbon Monoxide poisoning akin to suffocation and can exacerbate cardiovascular disease in humans.
According to the Nutramed.com (2001), toxic chemicals in environmental air pollution stimulate the immune system to activate leukocytes and macrophages that can produce tissue damage, especially to the cells that line human blood vessels. Although the damage is initially slight and may not produce significant limitation to the blood flow, repetitive and long-term exposure to toxic substances interferes with the ability of these lining cells to release a substance called endothelial-derived relaxing factor.
The central nervous system is the primary target for many serious air pollutants such as lead. While children are more susceptible to lead's effects on the central nervous system, adults exhibit similar deficits in learning and memory as well. Old age is also a period when enhanced vulnerability to the toxic effects of lead are predicted.
The types of road transportation that is used in the North West Province also result in toxic impacts on the environment, which can have negative health impacts. Car exhausts are known to emit noxious gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, benzene, formaldehyde, polycyclic hydrocarbons, and other gases (Nutramed.com 2001).
Although the correct use of strychnine poison is not considered to pose a major environmental risk, it is the misuse and abuse of organophosphates (e.g. monocrotophos) and carbamate agrochemicals (e.g. carbofuran) and aldicarb that may pose serious threats to the environment (N. Van Zijl, Poison Working Group, pers. comm., 2002). Careful control is essential to avoid killing non-target animals. Bushpig, caracal, baboons and vervet monkeys may under no circumstances be poisoned.
The impacts of POPs on ecosystems are wide ranging. POPs have been implicated in a broad range of adverse human health and environmental effects including impaired reproduction and endocrine dysfunction, immunosuppression and cancer. Exposure to the most toxic dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) causes the dermatological disorder chloracne, a chronic and disfiguring skin disease (Ritter et al. 1995).
As many POPs are able to diffuse into the atmosphere, the impacts of these emitted in the temperate and tropical areas, may become manifest in polar areas. Also, certain POPs, which accumulate in migratory species of birds, may also enter ecosystems long distances from the source of emission.

13.5.6 Responses

Legislative responses

International Conventions and Agreements

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants - aims to take international action to minimise risks associated with POP chemicals already identified and proven to pose a threat to the environment and human health through their toxicity and persistence, which is consistent with the Precautionary Principle. The Convention also intends to further identify additional POPs as candidates for future international action. These dangerous and highly toxic chemicals will be reduced and phased out in cooperation with the international community. South Africa signed the Stockholm Convention in September 2002.

Basel Convention - The main objectives of the convention are the reduction of the production of hazardous waste and the restriction of transboundary movement and disposal of such waste. South Africa ratified this Convention in May 1994.
National legislation

In response to all the negative impacts of the presence of toxins in the environment, many environmental laws have been enacted to control the management of toxins in South Africa and internationally. Some of the laws that have been passed to deal with toxicity in the environment in South Africa include, among others:

Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (Act No 36 of 1947);
Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (Act No 45 of 1965);
Hazardous Substances Act (Act No 15 of 1973);
Health Act (Act No 63 of 1977);
Agricultural Pests Act, (Act No 36 of 1983);
Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act No 43 of 1983);
National Water Act (Act No.36 of 1998);
National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998).

Institutional responses

Poison Working Group - Is a working group of the Endangered Wildlife Trust, a non-profit organization. The Poison Working Group collects information on poisons and poisonings of wildlife.

National Residue Monitoring Programme - The National Dept. Agriculture has in place the National Residue Monitoring Programme for monitoring in meat and milk and related products residues of:

environmental pollutants (e.g. heavy metals);
pesticides and insecticides;
veterinary drugs.

Several international organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO), the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and the CODEX ALIMNETARIUS COMMISSION have been conducting research on various aspects of the ecotoxic hazards to animal and human health (e.g. definition of such hazards; risk evaluations; international standards on acceptable daily intakes; analytical standardizations; monitoring programmes, etc.).

13.5.7 Outcomes

The banning and limiting the use of certain toxic substances such as DDT is one outcome. Setting of emission standards for polluting industries and monitoring programmes are another outcome.
Outcomes related to the implementation of national legislation such as the acts mentioned in 13.5.6 provide a legislative framework controlling the use and management of toxic substances for the protection of human health and the environment. However, the numerous laws and regulations applicable at different levels and enforced by different government departments has led to the fragmentation of law enforcement regarding toxicity in the environment.
The outcome of the implementation of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants cannot be assessed in the North West Province at this stage, as it only recently came into effect.

13.5.8 Linkages

This section is linked to:

Chapter 7 on major economic and industrial activities;
Chapter 8 on air pollution;
Chapter 9 on land transformation and soil quality;
Chapter 10 on water resources;
Chapter 11 on biodiversity;
Chapter 13.3 on waste management;
Chapter 13.6 on radiation and radioactivity in the environment;
Chapter 16.1 on ambient environmental monitoring;
Chapter 16.3 on environmental rehabilitation measures.

13.5.9 Data issues and indicators

Data issues - There is currently little information on the extent of toxicity in the environment of the North West Province. However, the Poison Working Group does have a database of poisons used and poisoning incidents reported in South Africa.
The University of Pretoria Faculty of Veterinary Science; Toxicology & Pharmacology and the Agricultural Research Council (OVI; Toxicology) also have data relating to toxicity in the environment.
The National Dept. Health (Forensic Laboratory) is monitoring certain chemical residues (presumably mostly Insecticides) in various foodstuffs for humans. Some statistics are available at the North West Dept. Health.
Several institutions specializing in certain analyses, like hormones & growth promoters in livestock production, monitoring of environmental pollutants, residues of pesticides and insecticides, residues of certain anthelmintics, antibiotics and coccidiostats in meat, milk, eggs and related products (W. Giesecke, NWDACE, pers. comm., 2002).

Indicators - There are currently no environmental indicators which are used to measure and evaluate the extent of toxicity in the environment, although the current initiative by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, towards developing environmental indicators for South Africa has identified the extent of POPs as a potential indicator.

13.5.10 Conclusions and recommendations

There is an obvious paucity of information on the extent and concentration of toxic substances in the North West Province, and their impact on human health and well-being.
The impacts of chemical substances on the environment can be reduced through several measures, but before any measures are implemented, all the stakeholders should be consulted.
Proper inspections on the use of pesticides and herbicides to ensure that the negative impact and side effects are reduced.
The Precautionary Principle should be applied when known POPs are being used or generated in industrial and/or agricultural applications.
To supplement the legal framework, it is important to establish public awareness raising mechanisms to inform the public of the danger of various toxic chemicals and their role in managing those chemicals. This effort should be supported by both national government and international environmental and development organisations.
An inventory of toxic substances in the environment and the extent of these should be compiled. Monitoring these substances and the impact is required.

13.6 Radiation and Radioactivity in the Environment

13.6.1 Introduction

There are four main sources of ionising radiation, namely cosmic, solar (electromagnetic), terrestrial (primordial/geological), and anthropogenic (man-induced). Non-ionising radiation on the other hand includes, among others UV, radio and microwave. These can be found in air, water and soil and as result, in living organisms too.
Uranium is the element most commonly associated with radioactivity in the environment. Traces of Uranium are found in all soils in a concentration range of 0.7 9ppm (world mean value). The world mean concentration of Uranium in fresh surface water is 0.0004 ppm (DWAF 1996). Uranium mainly occurs as heavy minerals in the form of uranite (UxOx) and brannerite (U1-xTi 2+xO6) in a ratio of about 1:1. In the mined gold reefs of South Africa, uranium is often associated with other heavy minerals containing Cr (chromite) and As (arsenite). Daughter radionuclides from Uranium, Radium (Ra-226) and Thorium (Th-232) are also found in nature
Today uranium is used primarily as fuel in nuclear power plants and for nuclear weapons industry. Since uranium is both a radioactive element and a highly reactive heavy metal (the heaviest naturally occurring on earth), it has both radiological as well as chemotoxicity effects on living organisms. Therefore, the maximum Uranium concentration recommended in drinking water is 0,07 mg/l (Table 13.6.1).

Table 13.6.1: Current DWAF 1996 water quality guidelines for Uranium-238 (Source: Kempster et al. 1996).

Target water quality range (Bq/l)	Target water quality range (Bq/l)	Effects
0 to 0,89	0 to 0,070	No significant effects. Annual cancer risk less than 1 in 4 000 000.
0,89 to 3,6	0,070 to 0,284*	Annual cancer risk less than 1 in 1 000 000. May potentially be a slight risk of renal toxicity in sensitive individuals where renal function is impaired, but unlikely to have demonstrable renal toxicity in healthy individuals.
3,6 to 18	0,284 to 1,42	Annual cancer risk less than 1 in 200 000, but significant risk of chemical toxicity with renal damage.
>18	>1,42	Increasing cancer risk in long term. Increasing risk of renal damage in short term.

* If 0,284 mg/l is exceeded, human health may be at risk due to chemical toxicity.

Due to the long half-life of 238U as the major isotope in natural uranium the number of decays occurring during an average human life span is relatively small.
However, if it finds its way into the body the radio-toxicity is much greater. If uranium is inhaled or ingested, it poses increased risks of lung cancer and bone cancer (www.ieer.org/ieer/factsheet/uranium.html). By its insidious nature the effect of radioactive exposure of the general population, cancer may take anything up to 40 years to manifest itself. Where the effect is genetic, anomalies may take generations to appear.

13.6.4 Driving forces

Some of the driving forces that can be linked to radioactivity in the province include:

Need for uranium as a power source - radioactivity is a side effect;
Military requirements;
Natural radiation - Solar and cosmic radiation. Most of the environmental radioactivity is terrestrial and linked to geological deposits or the so-called NORM (naturally occurring radioactive material).

13.6.5 Pressures

Gold and uranium mining

The greatest technologically-enhanced source of radioactivity in the environment of the North West Province is directly as a result of gold and uranium mining (see Chapter 7). Uranium, as well as some of its radioactive decay products, migrate from the slimes dam deposits into adjacent environment. While covering mine deposits with vegetation can reduce the solid transfer of radionuclides by minimising wind- and water erosion, this does not prevent the seepage of dissolved salts and radionuclides into ground and surface water.
With the scarcity of water in the North West Province, ground and surface water pollution with persisting toxic heavy metals and radionuclides poses a severe environmental threat. Gold and Uranium recovery plants generate a large amount of wastewater. From the total intake volume of 337 x 106m3 water in 1986 of the gold and uranium mining industry, it was estimated that 39% of this was discharged into surface streams or returned to dolomitic compartments and 51% went to slimes dams and in evaporation pans (Funke 1990). Bain et al. (1994) estimate that only 30% of all liquid waste is retained on mine properties while 70% is discharged into aquifers and rivers.
Many of the mine dumps, slimes dams and evaporation pans in the North West Province are located on the porous dolomites (particularly the Far West Rand and Klerksdorp areas), causing contamination of ground water. In addition to this, several slimes dams and rock deposits are located in the headwaters of rivers and streams (such as the Mooi and Wonderfonteinspruit catchments) and hence the potential for surface water contamination with radionuclides and heavy metals (especially chromite and arsenite) is high. Water-borne transport of radionuclides results in the effects of both ground and surface water contamination being detected often at considerable distances from the source.

South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA) at Pelindaba

NECSA (formerly the Atomic Energy Corporation of South Africa) has operated at its Pelindaba site for more than 35 years in the field of nuclear and related technology. NECSA consists of two main divisions, Pelindaba Nuclear Institute (PNI) and Pelindaba Technology (PT).
The Pelindaba Nuclear Institute's main functions are nuclear radiation technology; nuclear fuel programme; nuclear waste and liabilities management; nuclear and conventional risk management; Pelindaba site management; quality and engineering management; and international nuclear safeguards of nuclear material.
Pelindaba Technology is the commercial arm of NECSA involved in developing and operating a portfolio of profitable business opportunities within NECSA's core competencies of fluorination and radiation technology.

13.6.6 State

Resources and geological occurrence of uranium

South Africa has the third largest uranium resource in the world after Australia and Niger. Around 79% of the uranium deposits are found in the Witwatersrand in the form of fluvial sediments deposited in fans along the shores of an ancient lake south east of the golden arc some 2 600 million years ago. Millions of years later, tectonic induced interruptions (geological activity) separated these metal enriched layers of sediments from each other. Today four of these layers, called reefs are mined for gold, each between 10cm and 2m thick.
Uranium deposits in the North West Province are found in the south-east of the Province predominantly in the Orkney, Stilfontein, Klerksdorp area and around Potchefstroom. The Pilanesberg Complex (believed to be a relict of an extinct volcano) is known to possess uranium deposits and hence above average levels of radioactivity have been detected.
Radioactive compounds in the environment that are of importance in the North West Province are Uranium-238, Thorium-230, Radium-226 and Radon-222. Because the half-life of radioactive daughter products of uranium such as Radon-222 and Radium-226, are relatively short (3.8 days & 1600 years respectively) and because they generate alpha radiation these pose a much greater health risk. Fortunately, due to the low radioactivity of U as the parent element there is believed to be a only a very small amount of 226Ra in the mine tailings dams. Bain et al. (1994) estimates that the total 226Ra in all mine deposits in the Witwatersrand amounts to about 50kg. Because of 222Rn gaseous nature and resultant high mobility even diffusing through cracks in rocks and through the soil, and its own alpha-emitting daughter products radon is considered the single biggest source of natural background radiation - contributing about 50% of total public dose. Radon dose can be problem in houses built on slimes dam material or if such material is used as fill-in.

Uranium contaminated areas and rivers in the North West Province

Elevated levels of uranium have been found in the following areas of North West Province (see Map 60):

Koekemoerspruit, which drains parts of the Klerksdorp area (near Stilfontein);
Kroomdraaispruit, near the abandoned New Machavie Goldmine, before its confluence with the Koekemoerspruit;
Wonderfonteinspruit below Carltonville (draining the Far West Rand goldfields);
Mooi River after its confluence with the Wonderfonteinspruit/Mooiriverloop;
Vaal River, where it flows past the Klerksdorp mining area (between the Mooi River mouth and Orkney); and
Pilanesberg - naturally occurring ground water enrichment with uranium due to contact with low-grade uranium bearing rocks of the Pilanesberg Complex.

13.6.7 Impact

Atmospheric impact

Wind blown dust from mine rock and sand dumps and slimes dams could pose a health hazard due to inhalation of uranium contaminated dust particles. Also radionuclide-contaminated dust can be dispersed far distances from the source, affecting agricultural lands for fruit and crop plantations. Uranium has a low Biological Accumulation Factor (BAF) and away from slimes dams and contaminated rivers the wind blown route for plant uptake should be low. Radon gas near slimes dams is a possible atmospheric and or indoor air problem.

Terrestrial environmental impact

Mine rock and sand dumps impact on the terrestrial environment and change the character of the landscape. Slimes dams displace natural vegetation and fauna and seepage from these can completely wipe out resident fauna and flora communities. Soil contamination with radionuclides is another impact affecting the terrestrial environment.

Impact on human health

Due to cosmic radiation (which increases with altitude), terrestrial radioactivity (geological in origin) and ingestion of radionuclides in food we are all being continuously exposed to ionising radiation. People can be exposed to additional sources of radioactivity through effluent discharges, waste disposal practice releasing radioactively contaminated materials into the public domain, use of contaminated land and the transport of radioactive materials in public areas. Certain consumer items also contain radioactivity e.g. wristwatch - tritiated luminous dials; beta lights; smoke detectors; industrial level gauges. By ionising atoms in organisms radioactive radiation has the potential to break chemical bonds and destroy living cells (mutagenic and somatic effects). Mutagenic effects of radiation occur in the form of genetic mutations passed on to subsequent generations and do not necessarily depend on a dose threshold (stochastic effects). However, somatic effects need a minimum dose to occur and show a clear dose-effect-relationship (deterministic effects). Somatic effects of radioactivity may be either short-term or acute effects (such as nausea, fever, diarrhoea, skin and tissue damage which can be fatal) and/or long-term carcinogenic effects. High radiation doses after the Hiroshima atomic bomb also caused terratogenic effects (mental retardation) amongst survivors (Bain et al. 1994).

Exposures to doses above 50Sv cause death within a week; at 4-5Sv 50% of those exposed die within a month. Below a short-term exposure of 1.7Sv no fatalities occur. At about 0.5Sv only slight changes in blood composition are detectable. Doses resulting in deterministic effects as itemised above are many orders of magnitude greater than the doses specified to limit stochastic effects - e.g. radiation worker dose limit is 20 mSv per year and public dose limit is 1 mSv per year.

The extent of these effects depends not only on the specific activity but also on the kind of radiation. Alpha-radiation, for example, has about 20 times more energy loss per unit path length in tissue than gamma-radiation, but it only penetrates into the outer layer of human skin (stratum germativum). Thus alpha-radiation from sources outside the body is not considered dangerous. However, low ionising gamma-radiation penetrates the whole body and therefore poses a greater risk as an external source. In contrast however ingested alpha radiation is very damaging at the cellular level. Additional factors influencing the effect radiation has on human bodies are time of exposure, mass of exposed body and sensitivity of exposed body parts, as inner organs are more sensitive than skin.

The contamination of river water affects downstream-users of river water (water supply, cattle watering and irrigation) as well as the life supporting aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and the riverine sediments. Directly exposed to a contamination risk are the water works in Potchefstroom and in Orkney using water from the Mooi and the Vaal Rivers respectively. Since conventional treatment processes are not effective in removing uranium from water supplies and routine uranium analysis of river water is too costly this may pose a danger to public health.

The results of the Mooi River radioactivity monitoring programme (Kempster et al. 1999) suggest that the total radiation dose (which includes the suspended solids) for both Potchefstroom untreated raw drinking water supply points are very low, and are not significantly different from the estimated natural background radioactivity levels. The study also concluded that none of the sites investigated in the Mooi River catchment required urgent remediation from a radiological perspective.

13.6.8 Responses

Legislative responses

National legislation governing nuclear activities:

Nuclear Energy Act (Act No. 131 of 1993);
Nuclear Energy Act (Act No. 46 of 1999);
Nuclear Regulator Act (Act No 47 of 1999).

Issuing of licenses by the National Nuclear Regulator - The National Nuclear Regulator (NNR) issues licenses to industries and institutions generating or using significant quantities of radioactive substances (<10kg/annum). In 2000 there were 18 facilities in the North West Province that are licensed by the NNR. These include:

South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA) at Pelindaba;
11 gold mines;
2 scrap recyclers;
2 fertiliser companie;s
3 facilities using small amounts (<10kg/annum) of radioactive material.

Institutional responses

The Mooi River Radioactivity Monitoring Programme came about as a result of an investigation by DWAF into water-borne radioactivity. It commenced in 1994 as a preliminary countrywide survey, and was followed up in 1996 by a further survey that concentrated on the gold mining areas as the preliminary survey revealed high levels of radioactive substances in streams near gold mining activities. The Mooi River Catchment was also the target area of this more detailed study, because of the uranium and thorium present in the ore being mined and the tailings stacked on the porous dolomites (between 0,25 and 1,0 mSv/year).

Environmental monitoring programmes by NECSA Pelindaba - The NECSA Pelindaba Site is required to undertake an environmental monitoring programme to assess public exposure to radioactive gaseous and liquid effluent discharges in accordance with license document RM-LIS-8034. In compliance with this requirement, various sample media are collected from the environment around the Pelindaba site. Additional environmental chemical and biological river-quality monitoring is also undertaken.
Commencing in January 1998, the NNR implemented an Environmental Verification Programme (CNSEVP). The primary objective of this programme was to provide an independent determination of the levels of radioactivity surrounding the Pelindaba site. (Table 13.6.2).

Table 13.6.2: NNR Environmental verification programme sample location, frequency of sampling and type of analysis (Source: CNS, 1999).

SAMPLE	LOCATION	FREQUENCY OF COLLECTION AND QUANTITY	TYPE OF ANALYSIS
River Water	Crocodile River downstream of liquid effluent discharge	Weekly collection for one month every quarter (3l)	Gamma Spectrometry and Uranium
Aquatic Plants (Hyacinth) and Fish	Hartbeespoort Dam	Annually (1kg)	Gamma Spectrometry and Uranium
Direct Radiation Exposure	Four TLDs at various locations around the site	Quarterly	Ambient dose rate equivalent
Dam Water	From sampling areas in Hartbeespoort Dam	Quarterly integrated (3L)	Gamma Spectrometry and Uranium
Dam Sediment	From sampling areas in Hartebeespoort Dam	Quarterly integrated (500ml)	Gamma Spectrometry and Uranium
Milk	One sample from a location near the site	Quarterly (1L)	Gamma Spectrometry and Uranium
Thabana Soil	Four soil samples	Semi-annually (500ml)	Gamma Spectrometry and Uranium
Thabana Water	Four Borehole water samples	Semi-annually (3L)	Gamma Spectrometry and Uranium

Public participation forums - several public participation forums have been instituted. Including the Mooi/Kromdraai River Forum and the Pelindaba Communication Forum. The Mooi/Kromdraai River Forum consists of a wide range of stakeholders, and deals with pertinent environmental issues (such as radioactivity) facing the river catchment. The Pelindaba Communication Forum, which addresses issues of NECSA operations, is an independent body consisting of local stakeholders and community representatives that deals with environmental and socio-economic issues. Authorities such as NNR, DWAF, DME also attend the monthly meeting.

13.6.9 Outcomes

Awareness creation is of critical importance in issues of environmental concern. Cooperation between civil society and the authorities in recognising associated impacts and findings means of mitigating against them is of high importance. The communication forums mentioned to above, are some of the early outcomes of the awareness programmes, but there is a necessity to develop such initiatives further to be as inclusive as possible, and to replicate them in other areas

13.6.10 Linkages

This section overlaps with the following sections and/or chapters in the report:

Chapter 7.1 on mining;
Chapter 8 on air quality;
Chapter 10 on freshwater resources;
Chapter 11 on biodiversity;
Sections 13.3 on waste management;
Sections 13.5 on toxicity in the environment, and
Chapter 16 on environmental monitoring, auditing and rehabilitation.

13.6.11 Data issues and indicators

Data issues - Institutions collecting radioactivity information include:

Chamber of Mines, which collects information on monitoring activities conducted by mines;
Council for GeoScience, which has data on radioactivity for whole of South Africa and is currently producing a radioactivity map for South Africa.
National Nuclear Regulator, which collects information on industrial nuclear activity and reports by licensees , and
NECSA , which has results of radioactivity (analytical) monitoring programmes for Pelindaba and has biomonitoring and water quality results for the Crocodile River (30 year data set). The institution also measures air quality, particularly fluorides and uranium in the air as well as chemical monitoring in surface and ground water.

Indicators - Indicators of environmental radioactivity include:

Uranium-238 (and relevant daughter products) concentrations and activities in river and dam sediments and water;
Radium and Thorium levels in the environment;
U-238 (and relevant daughter products) bioaccumulation in the foodchain and ecosystems;
Number of cancer cases reported in a potentially contaminated area directly attributed to the chronic effects of radioactivity e.g. pancreatic cancer. It is however, usually very difficult to relate cancers to naturally occurring radionuclides partly because of wide spread occurrence of all cancers and pervasiveness of NORM. Only with very high values over a large population group could you hope to start to get a quantifiable epidemiological effect.

13.6.12 Conclusion and recommendations

A number of areas in the North West Province have been shown to have, or may potentially have higher than natural background levels of uranium:

Mooi River below the confluence with the Wonderfonteinspruit/Mooiriverloop (draining the Far West Rand goldfield);
Koekemoerspruit, which drains parts of the Klerksdorp area (near Stilfontein);
Kroomdraaispruit, near the abandoned New Machavie Goldmine, before its confluence with the Koekemoerspruit;
Vaal River, where it flows past the Klerksdorp mining area (between Mooi River confluence and Orkney).

However, the Mooi River radioactivity monitoring programme concluded that none of the sites investigated in the Mooi River catchment required urgent remediation from a radiological perspective.

There is a growing body of evidence pointing that both the long- and short-term effects of radioactive substances present in the environment may be impacting on the health of the population of the North West Province, particularly in the gold mining areas. Communities that are not currently supplied with safe, treated water and which rely on radionuclide-contaminated surface or ground water resources for their potable water are the most vulnerable to such health risks (Faanhof et.al.1995).

It is recommended that:

Effluent flows from gold mine tailings dams, evaporation pans and mine dumps (i.e. point sources) are monitored regularly for radioactivity to assess potential impacts on surface and ground water (especially in the dolomitic areas in the south east of the North West province).
For the Mooi River catchment, monitoring of chemical uranium concentrations (or surveillance in the absence of water flow) should continue on a monthly basis.
Direct impact on radioactivity should be required for the formulation of water quality management plans in potentially affected areas.
Gold mine dumps need to be rehabilitated and revegetated where possible to mitigate the effects of wind-blown radioactive dust contamination of surrounding urban and rural areas.

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Heritage Resources

Contents

Environmental Education And Capacity Building