Chapter 8: AIR QUALITY

Authors: Elizabeth Muller(1) and Stuart Mangold(2)

1.Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria
2.North West Province Dept. Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, Mafikeng

CONTENTS

Introduction
Driving Forces
Pressures
State
Impact
Responses
Outcomes
Linkages
Data Issues and Indicators
Conclusions and Recommendations

References

8.1 Introduction

The Earth's atmosphere is made up of several gases, of which nitrogen (78,08%) and oxygen (20,9%) are the major components, together with a small percentage (less than 1%) of a range of other gases such as argon (0,93%), carbon dioxide, neon and helium (Preston-Whyte and Tyson 1993). Because the North West Province shares its atmosphere with the rest of southern Africa and the rest of the world, the Province's air quality is largely governed by regional and global atmospheric conditions. The high mobility of air causes impacts on air quality at places far removed from the source. For example, air pollution generated in Gauteng may have effects in the North West Province, depending on the dilution and mixing effects of the prevailing winds, climate, temperature and precipitation. There is also a vertical mixing of air within the troposphere (lowest atmospheric layer up to 10-15 km from the Earth's surface), which is dependent on temperature and seasonality.

Environmental interactions between the three phases of the atmosphere (solid, liquid and gaseous) results in air quality affecting the quality of water, the terrestrial environment and ultimately human health and well being. For example, acid rain is caused by high sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitric oxide levels in the atmosphere, which combine with water droplets in clouds and ultimately precipitate into the terrestrial environment. Therefore, SO2 and nitric oxide can cause changes in acidity in the terrestrial environment leading to corrosive effects on buildings, acidification of soils and water, thereby impacting on ecosystems (DEAT 1999).

Major air pollutants include:

The dominant long-lived gases, which affect air quality include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's). These are global atmospheric gases which may not have been generated within the North West Province, but will influence the air quality of the Province.
Short-lived gases such as nitric oxide and sulphur dioxide have more localised effects within the southern African region. These gases may have been produced elsewhere on the sub-continent but can impact on the air quality of the North West Province.
Radioactive gas emissions such as the Noble gases pose an additional threat to the environment and to human health (for more information on these please see the Radioactivity section).
The emission of ozone depleting substances (such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC's) and methyl bromide) poses a threat to the ozone layer and is hence an issue of global importance.
Also of global importance is the emission of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane), which contribute to the greenhouse effect by trapping heat within the atmosphere. South Africa is ranked as the fifteenth largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world (UNEP 2000). This is largely due to South Africa's high coal consumption as an energy source, which leads to high emissions of carbon dioxide (10 tons per person per year compared to the global average of 7 tons per person per year).

8.2 Driving Forces

Driving forces are the fundamental social, political and economic factors that cause environmental change (DEAT 1999). All three factors have a strong influence on the air quality of the North West Province (Table 8.1).

Examples of economic activities include industry, mining and mineral processing, agriculture and tourism. Associated with these activities is transport. Urbanisation and population growth are important social driving forces throughout South Africa and exacerbate the air quality issues in the North West Province by placing the natural environment under pressure by increasing the need for economic activity. The political climate can influence the extent to which environmental change may take place, and the public/politician attitude towards that change.

8.3 Pressures

The driving forces of economic activity, urbanisation & population growth and political climate will lead to various pressures being exerted on the natural environment. Table 8.2 lists the pressures each of these three driving forces place on the natural environment. This list is by no means exhaustive.

Table 8.1: Driving forces and their resulting pressures on the natural environment.

DRIVING FORCE	PRESSURE
Economic Activity	Energy demand & reliance on fossil fuels Habitat change Demand for resources Infrastructure (roads, rail etc)
Urbanisation & Population Growth	Energy demand & use of domestic fossil fuels Demand for resources Increasing densification of urban areas Infrastructure (roads, rail etc) Habitat change Demand for food and space Potential for higher unemployment
Political Climate	Past and present policies/legislation: both national and provincial International political climate International agreements Political will Public awareness & attitudes

8.4 State

Little is known about the state of air quality in the North West Province. Past efforts to collect information on provincial air quality have been scattered, random and incomplete. However, the activities in the Province can provide a good indication of the potential pollutants in the Province and the state of air quality (Table 8.2).

Table 8.2: Pollution sources and associated pollutants found in the North West Province.

POLLUTION SOURCE	ASSOCIATED POLLUTANTS
Industry (including mineral processing)	Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen dioxide Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Heavy metals Total suspended particulates Odours & Noise
Mining activities	Particulate matter Asbestos fibres Heavy metals (e.g. Vanadium, Chrome) Odours & Noise
Agriculture	Methane Fungal spores, pollen Odours & Noise
Transport	Particulate matter Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Lead Noise Nitrogen oxides Carbon oxides
Human settlements	Particulate matter Sulphur dioxide Smoke Carbon oxides Fungal spores, pollen
Regional air movements between provinces	Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen dioxide Carbon dioxide Methane Volatile organic compounds Fungal spores, pollen

Industry
Potential air pollutants emanating from the manufacturing and mining industries (see Chapter 7) include sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, particulate matter, heavy metals and non-criteria pollutants such as benzene and Chromium VI. Fertilizer production in the Potchefstroom area is one example of industry being responsible for nitrogen dioxide emissions.

Mining and mineral processing
Various air borne pollutants are common to the mining and minerals processing industry. These include particulate matter (often containing heavy metals and radioactive substances from gold mine dumps), sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon oxides. Many mineral-processing plants, such as platinum and ferrochrome plants, release significant amounts of smoke and, where sulphur-containing ores are smelted, sulphur dioxide into the air. One of the most dangerous emissions originating from chrome processing plants is the so-called Chromium VI, which is produced when chrome is smelted in the presence of oxygen. Due to the hazardous nature of this substance, the release of it into the air is prohibited.

Wind blown dust from gold mines tailings dumps are of some concern where such dumps are created near residential areas, or where residential areas develop near existing dumps. It is not only a nuisance as the tailings contain variable amounts of uranium, radium and other radioactive elements. The mines where significant amounts of uranium occur were all supposed to have completed radiological hazard assessments by the end of 1998. Such problems are mainly encountered in the gold mining complex of the Province, the Klerksdorp, Orkney, Stilfontein and Hartebeesfontein complex. Complaints about the nuisance are often lodged, but are very seldom responded to.

Although isolated from populated areas, the most critical and serious problem in the Province is the release of asbestos fibres from abandoned mines in the Western Region of the province, in the Heuningvlei, Pomfret Nchweng, Reivilo and Gamopedi areas (S. Mangold, North West DACE, pers. comm.). An assessment done for the Departments of Defence, of Health and of Public Works in 1996/1997 showed that, although most of the mine dumps have been rehabilitated effectively, subsequent disturbances, the absence of rehabilitation of the associated processing plant, the remaining randomly discarded dumps of fibre, the roads that were constructed with asbestos-containing ores and the residual fibres on, in and around houses still pose a significant threat to the environment and local communities.

Agriculture
The extent of agriculture in the North West Province is provided in Chapter 7. Air pollutants arising from livestock farming would be methane gas, with fertilizers (nitrous oxide) and agrochemicals being responsible for pollution from cropping.

Transport
Vehicular transport (see Chapter 7) on sand and gravel roads results in particulate matter (dust) being dispersed into the air, particularly from heavy vehicles in the vicinity of mines. The particle size of the particulate matter is important when determining the extent of impact of the dust pollution. In addition, vehicle use results in carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and lead emissions to the atmosphere. Volatile organic compounds are also released during vehicle use, with some compounds being more harmful than others. Diesel engines of trucks are particularly important in this regard.

Human settlements

Indoor air pollution in the domestic environment is often known to be worse than ambient air pollution, particularly in low-income homes with poor ventilation and reliance on fossil fuels for cooking (Biersteker et al. 1965; Benson et al. 1972; Cote et al. 1974; Yocum 1982). Indoor air pollution also tends to mirror ambient air pollution concentrations (Godish 1997). This can have a considerable impact on human health as many people now spend far more time indoors than they do outdoors (Gammage and Kaye 1987).
The use of these domestic fuels (see Chapter 7) is responsible for the deterioration of indoor air quality and localised outdoor air pollution in informal and peri-urban communities. This is particularly exacerbated in the cold winter months when meteorological conditions prevent adequate dispersion of the pollutants (Preston-Whyte and Tyson 1993). In addition to the inversion conditions found in areas of the North West Province (e.g. Ikageng, Klerksdorp, Stilfontein), the use of fossil fuels in winter increases due to the increased heating requirements. Pollutants arising from domestic fossil fuel use include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter and unburned hydrocarbons (Behera 1997; Davis et al. 1999; Muller 2001).

Natural sources
Natural sources of air pollution, such as veld fires, can also contribute to poor air quality in the North West Province. Veld fires produce significant amounts of particulate matter as well as nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrous oxide, carbonyl sulphide, ozone, carbon dioxide and non-methane hydrocarbons. Biomass burning is also the largest global source of atmospheric black carbon or soot (Van Wilgen et al. 1997).

8.5 Impacts

The environmental impact of air quality is associated with the activities listed in Section 8.4. The primary impact is poor air quality while the secondary impact of air quality on the environment can be divided into four categories: ecological; human health; infrastructural and atmospheric impact.

Ecological impact
The ecological impact of poor air quality depends largely on the actual pollutants found in the atmosphere as well as their concentrations. Air pollutants eventually impact upon the terrestrial and aquatic environment through precipitation and condensation. Acid deposition, associated with sulphur and nitrogen oxides, will result in changes in soil and water pH, and nutrient concentrations. This commonly affects local flora and fauna, particularly sensitive species. The agricultural impact of acid deposition can also occur, with nutrient leaching and changes in soil chemistry resulting. According to Dr Winde (Potchefstroom University pers. comm.) acid rain (due to sulphur dioxide being transformed into sulphuric acid and nitrous oxide into nitric acid in the atmosphere) results in acidic river water in the Mooi River near Potchefstroom, particularly at the beginning of the rainy season. A storm event accompanied by acid rain causes a sudden drop in pH in the river water. Due to the rapid pH change, the acidic river water has the potential to mobilise uranium and other heavy metals found in the sediment. This may be having devastating effects on aquatic ecosystems.

The number of species in an ecosystem declines in response to pollution, resulting in changes in ecosystem function. Species sensitive to environmental perturbations such as air quality deterioration are normally the first to vanish. Certain lichens are particularly sensitive to smoke and soot pollution from industry and their presence or absence can therefore be used as an indicator of prevailing air quality. Sulphuric acid and nitric acid are also deposited with other fine particles directly into the terrestrial environment, resulting in the acidification of soils. This impacts on the ability of soils to support plant growth, with shallow sandy soils being most vulnerable to acidification (DEAT 1999). This is known to occur on the escarpment of Mpumalanga Province (where a large number of coal-fired power stations and other industries are situated), but it is not known whether this occurs in the North West Province.

Sulphur dioxide itself is known to be toxic to plants and animals. Levels in Gauteng Province have been known to occasionally exceed biological toxicity thresholds (DEAT 1999). Whether SO2 from the Gauteng Province impacts on the air quality in the North West Province, largely depends on prevailing winds. As the vast majority of industries are located in the eastern region of the North West Province in the Rustenburg- Brits-Garankuwa area, it is in this region where air pollution emanating from industry is of greatest concern, particularly from the platinum and chrome processing industries. High levels of sulphur dioxide are currently being emitted in this region (in excess of 250 tons/day for Rustenburg). These levels of emissions are impacting on the air quality in the area and the potential for acid rain and acidification of soils and water is high. The environmentally sensitive areas of Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment and the Rustenburg Nature Reserve are also in the vicinity.

Methane itself is not toxic at present levels, but it is reactive with other hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, readily forming low-level tropospheric ozone, which is toxic to plants and animals. Such tropospheric ozone is known to periodically exceed levels which are harmful to plants in the highveld region (DEAT 1999), possibly including the eastern region of the North West Province. Stratospheric ozone depletion gives rise to increased UV-B radiation, which contributes towards reduced crop productivity, genetic changes and altered photosynthetic activity (Godish 1997). Sulphur dioxide, heavy metals and nitrogen dioxide from fertilisers are responsible for vegetation damage. Industries emitting sulphur dioxide cause significant damage to plants under ambient exposure. Industries emitting nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter are a minor cause of plant injury, mainly associated with high concentrations (Godish 1997). Wind-borne particulate matter from gold mine dumps in Potchefstroom, Klerksdorp, Orkney and Stilfontein may contain toxic substances such as arsenic, cyanide and radio-active substances such as uranium and radium.

Abandoned and unrehabilitated asbestos mines in the Pomfret, Heuningvlei, Nchweng, Reivilo and Gamopedi areas have been a significant source of wind-borne asbestos fibres for several decades. Asbestos fibres are not dissolvable in water, neither do they move through soil or break down over time. They therefore persist in the environment for long periods of time. Damage to plants due to atmospheric pollution includes chlorophyll destruction and tissue death, with the formation of pigmentation also occurring.

Human health impact
The impact of air quality on human health is largely governed by the level of exposure (concentration of the pollutant) as well as the length of time individuals are exposed to a pollutant )hours per day, days per year, and number of years) (US EPA 1996). In determining the health effects of each pollutant exposure, it is therefore critical to know this information. Stratospheric ozone depletion and the associated increase in UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface is a leading cause of sunburn, cataracts and skin cancers (such as melanoma) (BMA 1999).

Unemployment and poverty in the North West Province are major factors affecting the state of the environment. Overcrowding in urban and peri-urban areas and burgeoning informal settlements where people live in congested dwellings with inadequate ventilation has a major impact on air quality in these areas and hence human health. Coupled with this is the domestic use of fossil fuels by large numbers of people without access to electricity. Some of the highest air pollution levels have been recorded in similar low-income indoor environments. Indoor SO2 levels become dangerously high when cooking with coal (up to 5,2 mg/m3) for one hour, with total suspended particulate matter reaching 1,420 mg/m3 (measured in a rural area in the Free State). The World Health Organisation (WHO) states that the minimum levels of total suspended particulate matter for effects on human health to be detectable is 0,180 mg/m3 over a 24-hour period.

The long-term impact of the high SO2 and dust emissions in the Rustenburg area on human health and well-being is not known. The national and provincial mortality rate directly attributable to air pollution (indoor and outdoor) has yet to be quantified. Schwela (1998) estimates that three million people die each year in developing countries due to air pollution, 2,8 million of these deaths are said to be due to indoor exposure to particulate matter (smoke). Children and those already suffering from respiratory diseases living in low-income housing or informal settlements are the most vulnerable.

Common air pollutants are responsible for a variety of health effects, ranging from eye irritation to cardiovascular effects to respiratory and pulmonary problems. Sulphur dioxide primarily affects the mucous membranes (e.g. eyes and nose) and respiratory system. It is responsible for causing chest tightness, coughing, wheezing and other respiratory problems. Sulphur dioxide in the presence of particulate matter can aggravate chronic lung diseases and increase the risk of respiratory illness (TOXNET 2000). Nitrogen dioxide mainly affects the respiratory system (causing shallow breathing, rapid heart rate, wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing), although it can also affect the immune system (Californian EPA 1997; Law 1999). This is a particular concern in the eastern region of the Province (Rustenburg, Brits area) as well as indoors due to coal burning in poorly ventilated dwellings.
Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant that displaces oxygen from the breathing atmosphere. Individuals with cardiac or pulmonary diseases are most susceptible to the effects of carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide exposure is associated with various effects, ranging from headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting to rapid heart beat, shallow breathing and fainting (TOXNET 2000). These health effects are only likely to occur at extremely high indoor concentrations.

Particulate matter may be of variable sizes and the smaller the particle the more likely it is to travel deep into the lungs resulting in adverse health effects. Individuals with asthma, lung and heart disease are most susceptible to the effects of particulates, as are the elderly and young children. Particulates are likely to cause persistent coughs, wheezing and excess phlegm, as well as diseases associated with compounds (such as volatile organic compounds) that can be attached to the particulate matter (US EPA 1997). Asbestos fibres are known to cause asbestosis and mesothelioma (ATSDR 2001).
The impact on human health attributable to climate change caused by greenhouse gases such as methane, is listed in Table 8.3.

Table 8.3: The impact of climate change on human health (Source: WHO 1990).

DIRECT EFFECTS	INDIRECT EFFECTS
Heat stress Increased UV radiation o Increase in skin cancers o Eye diseases e.g. cataracts Changes in weather patterns o Air pollution dispersion affected	Food and nutrition o Changes in nutritional requirements o Changes in food production Communicable diseases o Changes in the distribution of malaria o Onchocerciasis, Schistosomiasis etc o Changes in distribution of water-, soil- and airborne diseases Permanent and/or temporary human migration

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are released during industrial processes (such as fossil fuel burning) and are also found in vehicle emissions. VOCs include a wide range of individual substances (hydrocarbons, halocarbons and oxygenates), with varying health effects. The health effects of VOCs include mucous membrane irritation, headaches, nausea, organ damage and cancer. Benzene is one of the main VOCs arising from vehicle emissions, and benzene concentrations are often higher in urban areas compared to rural areas, with roadside concentrations being highest (US EPA 2001; MMU 2001).

The impact of air quality from wind-blown dust emanating from gold mine dumps is localised around the Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp-Orkney-Stilfontein areas. Dust from gold mine dumps and tailings dams contains several toxic substances (e.g. arsenic, cyanide and radioactive substances including Uranium-238 and Radium-226). These cause adverse effects on human health (such as silicosis) and crops growing on nearby farm lands.

Un-rehabilitated asbestos mines are impacting significantly on the health of the surrounding communities. Wind blown asbestos dust is known to cause a range of pulmonary diseases, including asbestosis, lung cancer and mesothelioma (Randeree 1998). This is a persistent environmental problem, which nearby local communities have been exposed to for several decades. To this day, blue asbestos fibres or crocidolite (the most toxic form of asbestos) are being blown from open mine pits into nearby villages in the districts listed above, with toxic material being carried up to 60 to 100 km away in strong winds (Randeree 1998). Many ex-miners and people living in the adjacent communities have died or are suffering from the abovementioned respiratory diseases. It has been proposed that the communities be moved out from the Pomfret area because of this environmental disaster. The Pomfret military base has already been relocated to Zeerust. The Nchweng asbestos mine, which was rehabilitated in 2001, is located very close to the school and village, posing a very serious health threat to the people living in this area (S. Mangold, North West DACE, pers. comm.). Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5), classified as a carcinogen, is mined in the Brits region. There is clear evidence that this compound has mutagenic properties (HSE 2001). V2O5 is also responsible for eye, nose and throat irritation and can cause respiratory health effects and eczema (HSE 2001). The main route of exposure to V2O5 is through inhalation. One mine mines both vanadium and chromium in the Brits area, while another also mines chromium in the same area. Chromium VI is a known carcinogen.

Odour and noise are two air pollution issues commonly associated with quality of life rather than health effects (Law 1998). However, hearing loss due to industrial exposure is possible. Odour and noise are generally considered by the public to be annoyance (Godish 1997). Odours from Rainbow Chickens in Rustenburg have been a persistent environmental problem for adjacent communities for many years. The Rainbow Chickens industry is committed to ameliorating this problem through the installation of appropriate environmental technology. Air-borne pathogens such as fungal spores, bacteria and other microbes may affect communities living near unmanaged or poorly managed waste dumps and municipal waste sites. The causal connection of exposure to such environmental health hazards warrants further investigation.

Infrastructural impact
Infrastructure can undergo changes due to atmospheric pollution. Corrosion of metals, building grime and dirt, and rubber cracking is the impact associated with common atmospheric pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, particulate matter and ozone.

Atmospheric impact
The atmospheric impact of pollution include reduced visibility and thermal pollution or ambient heat retention. Visibility reduction is often associated with stack plumes as well as winter smog. Haze in the warmer months can also be a result of air pollution. Thermal air pollution is common in urban areas where industrial waste heat and urban surfaces (e.g. concrete, tar, glass) in combination can result in what is known as an urban heat island (Godish 1997).

8.6 Responses

Responses to air pollution in the North West Province are governed by both national legislation and international agreements. The relevant legislation and agreements are discussed below. In addition to legislation and agreements, various other initiatives are underway in the North West Province, including the establishment of the Rustenburg Air Quality Forum (Mr S. Mangold, North West DACE, pers. comm.).

8.6.1. Policy and legislative responses

National legislation
The legislation that is relevant to the control of air pollution in South Africa, and its possible effect includes:

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act No. 108 of 1996) (see Chapter 5), which specifies environment which is not harmful to his or her health as a basic human right.

The National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998) states that reasonable legislative and other measures should be taken tot: prevent pollution and ecological degradation; promote conservation; secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development; and the environment is a functional area of concurrent national and provincial legislative competence, and all spheres of government and all organs of state must cooperate with, consult and support one another".

Environment Conservation Act (Act No. 73 of 1989) (see Chapter 5), which specifies that the processes listed in Schedule II of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act are activities requiring an Environmental Impact Assessment (DEAT 1998).

Occupational Health and Safety Act (Act No. 85 of 1993) (see Chapter 5), which is intended to provide for the health and safety of persons at work against hazards arising out of the activities at work. This includes possible air pollution in the form of noxious gases, as well as particulate matter.

Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (Act No. 45 of 1965), in which Schedule II addresses air pollution from industrial plants. Any person intending to establish any of the 72 processes defined in the second schedule to the Act, must apply to the DEAT for certification of that process (DEAT 2000). The Act controls pollution at the source and is based on 'best practicable means'.

Table 8.4: South African guidelines for ground-level concentrations (in parts per billion) of air pollutants (Source: DEAT 2000)

Time Interval	SO2	NOx	NO	NO2	O3	Particulate matter (PM10)
Instantaneous	600	1400	900	500	250	-
1 hour average	300	800	600	200	120	-
24 hour average	100	400	300	100	50	180 ug/m3
Monthly average	50	300	200	80	-	-
Annual average	30	200	150	50	-	60 ug/m3

International agreements

International agreements pertaining to air quality include:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - The UNFCCC emanated from the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and represents a global agreement to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases (particularly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) to prevent a major impact on global climate change. This convention was ratified by South Africa in August 1997. As a developing country, South Africa is not currently under any obligation to limit its emissions of greenhouse gases, however this may change in the future (UNFCCC 2001).

Emanating from the UNFCCC is theKyoto Protocol, which was adopted at the third session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997. The Kyoto Protocol, sets legally-binding greenhouse gas emission objectives for industrialised countries. These countries should, as a whole, achieve at least a 5% reduction in emissions from 1990 levels over the 2008-2012 period. The Protocol stipulates areas for action, and sets up a number of mechanisms for international cooperation, such as emissions trading. South Africa acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in July 2002.

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) - South Africa's accession to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer was approved on 15 January 1990. The Montreal Protocol controls the use of ozone-depleting substances (chemicals), as well as the import of such chemicals. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism authorizes permits for chemicals that may be brought into the country through the Department of Trade and Industry. The import of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into South Africa is banned. The strategic goal is to protect the ozone layer by restricting and controlling the use of ozone-depleting substances and phasing out and replacing ozone-depleting substances with ozone-friendly substances" (DEAT 2000).

8.6.2. Institutional Responses

Socio-economic responses
In an effort to address the issue of indoor air pollution, the national housing policy is advocating improved housing design (particularly for low-cost housing) with an emphasis on suitable chimney construction. The electrification of houses should reduce the use of coal and wood as domestic energy sources.

The paving of gravel and dirt roads in informal settlements will improve ambient air quality in urban and peri-urban areas. The reduction of smoke emissions from industry can be achieved through fitting various devices in chimney-stacks. These include electrostatic devices, bag filters, venturi scrubbers and flue-gas desulphurisation equipment. These operate by trapping smoke and dust particles before release from the smoke stack into the atmosphere. The design of the smoke stack can also reduce air pollution effects. Higher stacks which emit above the temperature inversion layer reduce local pollution through better dispersion of emissions.

8.7 Outcomes

In general, industries with significant emissions of atmospheric pollutants are committed to reduce and manage their emissions in the long-term. There are several ways in which industries are able to reduce their impact on air quality in the North West Province. The list includes but is not limited to:

Introduction of scrubbers;
Shifting to renewable energy (or low sulphur fuel);
Introduction of cleaner technology;
Implementation of process equipment changes and process changes;
Improvement of operating practice;
Ensuring regular maintenance; and
Ensuring maximum energy conservation (Godish 1997).

Several air quality monitoring initiatives are currently underway in the North West Province:

Rustenburg - Air quality monitoring is well established in Rustenburg. There are currently eight air quality monitoring stations in the area. Three stations are operated by Impala Platinum, four by Eskom (for Amplats) and one mobile caravan is operated by Lonmin. The stations are currently monitoring SO2, NOx and particulate emissions. An additional three monitoring stations are planned for this area in the future. The results are sent to DEAT. The recently established Rustenburg Air Quality Forum is soon to become a Section 21 company. The companies participating in this Forum include: Amplats, Impala, Xstrata, Lonmin, Samancor and SA Chrome. Some companies also conduct their own monitoring. For example, Vametco monitors dust outfall, as well as potential vanadium accumulation in nearby cattle herds.

Pelindaba - The Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa (NECSA) at Pelindaba performs air quality monitoring, particularly for radioactive gases from their radioactive storage facilities and nuclear reactor. NECSA also has a fully equipped meteorological station for the monitoring of wind and weather patterns.

Lichtenburg - Lafarge Cement monitors dust outfall at seven stations in Lichtenburg. Lafarge intend to establish a continuous dust monitoring station in addition to the seven existing dust outfall stations. Alpha cement has established an environmental forum for the people living in their village. Alpha and Lafarge are also planning a public participation forum in Lichtenburg for local public participation on air quality issues.

Other areas - Other environmental forums dealing with air quality in the North West Province include:

Hernic in Brits, and
The Vametco forum for interested parties in Bethane - they also have an additional meeting with cattle owners.

The current total SO2 emissions in the Rustenburg area is approximately 250 tons/day. By installing 'environmentally clean' technology in smoke stacks, the three platinum plants have committed to reducing their SO2 emissions to less than 20 tons/day and their dust emissions to less than 50mg/nm3. With the proposed reductions, SO2 emissions should be reduced initially by 150 tons/day between the last quarter of 2001 and the first quarter of 2002. A further reduction of another 28 tons/day will be effected by Amplats by 2003. A total SO2 reduction of 168 tons/day is envisaged by 2003. This figure includes the possible increase of +/-10 tons/day due to the new ferro-chrome smelters in the area (Mr W. Bryszewski, North West DACE, pers. comm.). These smelters will be using 'environmentally clean' Outokumpu closed furnace technology, which have the following advantages:

Higher emission level;
Flaring of emission gases;
Low emission flow rate of approximately 3 nm3/s;
99+% availability for air abatement equipment , and
Low dust emission concentrations from the venturi scrubbers which should typically be below 50mg/nm3.

8.8 Linkages

This chapter links with the following chapters:

Chapter 5 on the policy and legislative environment;
Chapter 6 on settlement and land use patterns;
Chapter 7 on major industrial and economic activities;
Chapter 10 on surface water resources;
Chapter 11 on biodiversity;
Chapter 13 on human health and well-being (particularly waste management, toxicity and radiation in the environment).
Chapter 15 on integrated environmental management; and
Chapter 16 on environmental monitoring, auditing and rehabilitation.

8.9 Data Issues and Indicators

Data issues - Adequate air quality data for the North West Province are scarce and difficult to source with no central air quality data collection point in existence or being available. Existing data are sourced from project-specific air quality studies, usually undertaken as specialist studies in Environmental Impact Assessments or as compliance monitoring by a particular industry. Due to the problem of data availability, this section of the report has highlighted the need for direct quantification of air pollutants in the North West Province as a priority issue. This limitation should be addressed in future studies.

Indicators - The South African national Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is currently in the process of selecting national environmental indicators for use in South Africa A list of potential indicators of air quality and climate change is presented in Table 8.5 as proposed in the National Core Set of Environmental Indicators, DEAT 2001. It is recommended that the North West Province identify appropriate indicators from this national set which they can then use at a provincial level for reporting on air quality.

Some of the indicators from this set, which could be useful to the North West Province in the interim period, include:

The ratio of annual fuel type sales (Reporting on the amount of diesel, unleaded and leaded petrol sold in the Province annually. Fuel types could also include aviation gas, paraffin, coal etc).

Ambient concentrations of various pollutants (monitoring of SO2, NO2, and particulate matter). Other pollutants (e.g. Chromium VI) can be added in as the monitoring network becomes more established and more funds are available.

Table 8.5: The proposed list of Atmosphere and Climate Indicators for South Africa (Source: DEAT, 2001).

Issue	Indicator	Type	Level	Frequency	Scale	Linkages
Climate Change and Variability
	Emissions of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane)	P	1	5 yearly	National	UNFCCC, CSD Environment
	Renewable and non-renewable energy use	P	1	Annual	National
	Change in the size of the national net carbon sink	P	1	5 yearly	National	UNFCCC
	Malaria: morbidity and mortality	I	1	Annual	Provincial
	Annual rainfall deviations	S	1	Annual	Annual
	Annual temperature deviations	S	1	Annual	Provincial
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
	Emissions of ozone depleting substances	D/P	1	Annual	National	Montreal Protocol, CSD Environment
	UV-B measurement	I	1	Monthly	Local
	Index of changes in total atmospheric ozone	S	1	Monthly	Local
Air Quality
	Ambient Pollutant Concentrations in Urban Areas	S	2	Monthly	National (per major urban area)	DPLG, CSD Environment
	Permitted Vs. Actual Emissions Per Pollutant Per Major Industrial Complex	R	2	Annual	Regional (region = major industrial complex)
	Annual Ratio of Fuel Type Sales	D/P	1	Annual	National

Issue	Indicator	Type	Level	Frequency	Scale	Linkages
Integrated Issues
	Emissions of greenhouse gases per output in the energy sector	S	1	Annual	Sectoral
	Ozone depleting substances per manufacturing output	P	1	Annual	Sectoral
	Economic cost of carbon abatement in South Africa	R	1	Annual	National
	Energy use per urban user	S	1	Annual	National	DPLG
	Energy use per rural user	S	1	Annual	National	DPLG

CSD: Commission for Sustainable Development
DPLG: Department of Provincial and Local Government Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Montreal Protocol: Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

Type refers to the D-P-S-I-R model categories (Driving Forces, Pressures, States, Impacts, Responses respectively).
Level indicates the current availability of information pertaining to each indicator:

Frequency refers to the proposed frequency of reporting on each indicator for meaningful results and trends to be obtained. However, data collection will necessarily be more frequent than the reporting frequency.

Scale refers to the geographical scale at which the indicator is applicable: national, provincial, local or catchment level.

Linkages refers to possible commonalities between the particular indicator and other indicators used for reporting obligations as required by international conventions ratified by South Africa.

Please refer to the section on environmental and sustainable development indicators for more information on these proposed indicators for future monitoring and reporting.

8.10 Conclusions And Recommendations

This study concludes that little quantitative data ARE available to illustrate the state of air quality in the North West Province. There is much information on the activities taking place in the Province that may lead to poor air quality, in both rural and urban areas of the region. In addition, information that quantifies the impact of poor air quality in the North West Province is equally limited.

The following list presents some concluding remarks on air quality in the North West Province:

Ambient air quality in the North West Province is not considered to be a major problem on a provincial scale. However air quality in some urban and industrialised areas shows deterioration.

Un-rehabilitated asbestos mines in the North West Province continue to pose serious health threats to the surrounding communities. Further remedial actions to alleviate this situation are required.

Little is known about the effects of vehicular emissions, and the quantities of ozone depleting substances and greenhouse gases emitted in the North West Province.

Various air quality monitoring initiatives are currently undertaken in the Province. Much of the monitoring is for sulphur dioxide and particulate matter.

Several industries in the Province have shown their commitment to reducing emissions by employing 'environmentally clean' technology.

Non-point sources of pollution (e.g. dust from farmlands) are difficult to quantify.

Indoor air pollution still poses a health threat to those individuals using domestic fossil fuels. This situation is exacerbated in the cold winter months.

The following recommendations are proposed:

The North West Province should establish a central point for data collection on environmental quality, particularly air quality, in the Province. This central point should facilitate sharing of data between industry, tertiary education facilities and government, for the mutual benefit of all parties.

A provincial air quality monitoring network needs to be established. Existing monitoring sites could be linked to a new coordinated network to ensure air quality data is available for future State of Environment Reports for the Province.

A scheduled process database needs to be compiled, consolidated, updated and managed efficiently.

All abandoned mines and mine dumps should be rehabilitated to minimise their potential for pollution:

Abandoned asbestos mines should undergo proper clean-up measures of both dumps and discard heaps. Back-pack vacuuming should be used to get rid of fibres. Discard heaps should be covered with a minimum of 60cm of topsoil and rock and grassed over to prevent erosion (Dr P Ashton, CSIR, pers. comm.; Ashton et al. 2001). This should be done as a matter of urgency. This is particularly important in the areas of Heuningvlei, Pomfret, Nchweng, Reivilo and Gamopedi.

Every effort should be made to ensure that asbestos fibres in the surrounding environment are also cleaned up. This is particularly important in the areas of Heuningvlei, Pomfret, Nchweng, Reivilo and Gamopedi. Areas of special concern include villages, schools and other areas frequented by village inhabitants.

Tailings dams from many different mining operations should be rehabilitated and vegetated to prevent wind-blown dust (Dr P Ashton, CSIR, pers. comm.; Ashton et al. 2001).

Chrome, vanadium, gold and platinum smelters should be certified that dust and metal vapour collection technology is effective and maintaining emissions within acceptable limits (Dr P Ashton, CSIR, pers. comm.; Ashton et al. 2001).

Gold processing operations should use the latest cyanide handling techniques recommended by the Chamber of Mines to eliminate unnecessary potential toxic emissions to the environment (Dr P Ashton, CSIR, pers. comm.; Ashton et al. 2001).

Small-scale gold mining operations should be assisted in using alternative gold separation techniques to prevent mercury emissions to the environment (Dr P Ashton, CSIR, pers. comm.; Ashton et al. 2001).

Alluvial diamond diggings in certain areas of the Vaal River catchment should implement effective dust separation techniques (Dr P Ashton, CSIR, pers. comm.; Ashton et al. 2001).

The North West Province should select air quality indicators once the National Environmental Indicators Programme (DEAT) has been completed.

The electrification of homes should be an on-going activity.

Dirt and gravel roads should be paved or tarred to reduce the amount of particulate matter in certain areas.

A comprehensive quantitative assessment of the state of air quality in the Province should be conducted.

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Industrial and Economic Activities

Content

Land Transformation and Soil Quality